NSIVE SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS.] 



PRACTICAL GRAIMAE 



or THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



BY NOBLE EUTLEB.., A. It 



LOUISVILLE, KY.: 
MORTON & GRISWOLD 






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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. { 



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[COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS.] 



PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY NOBLE BUTLER, A. M. — 



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LOUISVILLE, KY. : 
MORTON & GRISWOLD 



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Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1845, 

By Morton & Griswold, 

In the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for the 
District of Kentucky. 



PREFACE. 



The following work was prepared while the writer was engaged in 
teaching. He has attempted to treat the subject in the way which he found 
by trial to be best calculated to secure the progress of the pupil. It is 
intended to make the pupil acquainted with one principle at a time. Those 
subjects which presented difficulties to himself or to other teachers, the writer 
has endeavored to explain fully. The whole work impractical. He has 
discussed some subjects at considerable length, because teachers every day 
find practical difficulties connected with these subjects. 

What the author considers improvements will be found in almost every 
part of the work; particularly in those parts of Etymology, which treat of 
adjectives, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, and adverbs, and in the Syntax. 

He has taken some pains to explain the nature of those words which are 
usually called compound relative pronouns. Almost every teacher he has 
conversed with is dissatisfied with the common mode of treating these 
words ; it is hoped that the method adopted in this work will be found more 
clear and simple. 

In general, the common arrangement has been followed, and the use of 
new terms avoided. A slight deviation from this course in respect to the 
tenses will be perceived. The English language is peculiarly neat and 
regular in its tenses ; but the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevents 
this from being readily seen. The mode of treating the subject which is 
presented in this work the author has used for many years, and he hopes that 
other teachers may be induced to adopt it.*' They will find that their pupils 
will see beauty and regularity in what before seemed confusion. Those who 
prefer the old names will find them enclosed in brackets. 

It was the author's anxious desire to avoid finding fault with the division 
into moods which English grammarians have generally adopted. He spent 
a great deal of time in attempting to fix the limits to the different moods, but 
found that his labor was lost. There was no boundary line which did not 



* The author is glad to see the same arrangement proposed in a note in an excel- 
lent grammar, by Dr. Bullions. 



i v PREFACE. 

vanish as he approached it. He has presented the usual division, and pro- 
posed a new one in a note. 

No grammarian whose works the author has seen, has given any suffi- 
ciently definite rules for the use of shall and will, should and would. An 
attempt has been made in this work to supply the deficiency. 

It is believed that the nature of the adverb will be better understood by 
its being placed, as it is in this work, after the preposition. 

The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a very useful and inter- 
esting exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Gram- 
mar, some changes and additions being made. 

It is hoped that teachers will be pleased -with the arrangement, &c. in the 
Syntax. In Rule xii. is noticed a very common construction of the language 
which has been hitherto unnoticed by English grammarians. This omission 
seems very strange, since most grammarians have been accustomed to a simi- 
lar construction in the Latin and Greek languages. It is difficult to tell how 
teachers have been able to give instruction in English grammar without 
referring to the principle. 

The author has, in some instances, mentioned the names of distinguished 
grammarians with whom he differs on some points. For all who are named 
he has a high respect. If they had not stood high in his estimation, as well 
in that of the public, their names would not have been mentioned. 

Louisville, 1845. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar treats of the principles of 
the English language. These principles relate, 

1. To the written characters of the language ; 

2. To its pronunciation ; 

3. To the classification and derivation of its words ; 

4. To the construction of its sentences ; 

5. To its versification. 

The first is called Orthography; the second, Orthoepy; 
the third, Etymology ; the fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, 
Prosody. 

Note. These principles are derived from the usage of 
the best writers and speakers. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of the letters and other 
characters of a language, and the proper mode of 
spelling words. 

Letters. 

A letter is a character used to represent an articulate 
sound. 



Of what does English Grammar treat? From what are the principles of Gram- 

To what do these principles relate? mar derived? 

What are the names of the divisions Of what does orthography treat? 

of English Grammar? What is a letter? 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice 
formed by the organs of speech. 

There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet. 

Classes of Letters. 

There are two classes of letters — vowels and consonants. 

A vowel represents a sound which is perfect without the 
aid of another sound. 

A consonant represents a sound which is made in conjunc- 
tion with a vowel sound. 

A , e, i, o, u, are vowels ; b, c, d, f g, h, j, k, I, m, n, 
p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, are consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they are immediately fol- 
lowed by a vowel sound in the same syllable; as in want, 
twine, what* youth, yellow. 

In other cases w and y are vowels ; as in now, mowing, 
sky, type, holy, eye.f 

EXERCISES. 

Tell in which of the following words w and y are consonants, 
and in which they are vowels. 

"Water, wet, winter, young, yet, yonder, boy, joy, glory, 
sowing, sawing, new, newly, eye, scythe, brow, cow, when, 
whip, which, paw, enjoying, swine, try, swim. 

Classes of Consonants. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 
The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound by themselves ; 
the mutes have not. 

The mutes are b, p, d, t, k, q, chard and g hard. $ 



"What is an articulate sound'! Name the vowels— the consonants 

How many letters in the English al- When are w and y consonants'' 
phabet? Into what two classes are consonants 

Into what two classes are letters di- divided? 
vided? What is a vowel? What is a semi- vowel?— a mute? 

What is a consonant? What consonants are mutes? 



* Though j^n what is placed after w, it is sounded before it. 

t Inthisword, y is followed by a vowel, but the vowel is not sounded. 

X C is hard when it has the sound of k, as in cat; and soft when it has the sound 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 

The semi-vowels are/, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, c soft and g soft. 
X is a double consonant equivalent to Jcs. 

Four of the semi-vowels, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, 
on account of their smooth, flowing sounds. 

Remark. The vowels represents sounds, the consonants modifications of 
sound made by the lips, tongue, palate, &c. Thus, if we make the sound 
represented by a, and close the lips, we make that modification of sound 
■which is represented by p. The mutes close the organs, so that no sound can 
be emitted -while the organs are in that position; the pure mutes, (p, h, t, q, and 
c hard,) entirely, the others almost so. The semi-vowels admit the passage of 
sound through the mouth, or the nose. Some of the semi- vowels, (as v and z,) 
are almost as pure sounds as the vowels. The sounds of the vowels, and the 
modifications represented by the consonants are so closely connected, that 
the most obvious' division of words seems to be into syllables; and accordingly 
we find that in the Hebrew, and other early languages, the letters represented 
syllables. The division into vowels and consonants was the result of a more 
accurate investigation of the elements of speech. 

Diphthongs. 

Two vowels in immediate succession in the same syllable 
form a diphthong; as, ou in found, 

Aproper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sound- 
ed; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded; as, ea in beat. 

Triphthongs. 

Three vowels in immediate succession in the same sylla- 
ble form a triphthong; as, eau in beau. 

A proper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are 
sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are 
not sounded; as, eau in beauty . 

What consonants are'semi-vowels? What is a diphthong? — a proper diph- 

What is said of x ? thong] — an improper diphthong"? — a triph- 

Whichofthe semi- vowels are called thong?— a proper triphthong?— an improp- 

liquids? Why? er triphthong? 

of s, as in city. G is hard when it is sounded as in gun; and soft when it has the 
sound of j as in gentle. 



8 english grammar. 

Syllables and Words. 

A syllable is a letter, or a combination of letters, uttered 
at a single impulse of the voice. 

Thus ; in amen, a constitutes one syllable, and men another. 

A word is a syllable, or a combination of syllables, used as 
the sign of some idea. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of 
two syllables, a dissyllable ; of three syllables, a trisyllable ; 
of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell which of the following words are monosyllables, which 
dissyllables, <J*c. 

Twenty, man, happy, unity, school, safety, book, baker, 
magnanimous, monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, ambiguity, 
vulture, tough, crucifix, homily. 

A primitive word is one which is not derived from another 
word in the language; as, man, holy, love. 

A derivative word is one whicn is derived from another 
word in the language; as, manly, holiness, loving. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more 
words, as schoolmaster, laughter-loving. 

A simple word is one which is not compounded; as, word, 
man. 

Compound words in common use have their component parts united toge- 
ther, and are written as single words; as, inkstand. 

Other compound words have a hyphen between the component parts ; as 
cloud-compelling. 

SPELLING. 

This art is to be learned from dictionaries and spelling- 
books. Assistance may be derived from the following 

What is a syllable? — a word? How are compounded words in com- 

What is a primitive word? — a deriva- mon use written ? 

tive word?— a compound word?— a sim- How are other compounds written? 
pie word? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 
Rule I. 

Monosyllables which end in/*, I, or s, preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel, double the final consonant; as, staff, mill, pass. 

Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, 
thus, gas, pus. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following words. 
Mil, mis, gues, bles, spel, wal, tal, stif, puf, gros, las. 
Iff, iss, hass, yess, thiss, gass. 

Rule II. 

Words ending in any other consonant than f I, or s, do 
not double the final letter; as, war, drug. 

Exceptions. Add, odd, ebb, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz, egg. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following. 
Rapp, whenn, gunn, bragg, tarr, batt. 
Ad, eb, od, eg, buz. - 

Rule III. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the laslT syllable, 
ending with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, 
double that consonant, when an addition beginning with a 
vowel is made ; as, blot, blotting ; abet, abetting, abetter; 
wit, witty, 

Remark 1. But if a diphthong precedes the last conso- 
nant, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant 
remains single ; as, toil, toiling; offer, offered. 

What is the first general rule for spel- What is the third general rule? 

ling? What exceptions? Is it proper to double the last con- 

What is the second general rule?— sonant in other cases? 
What exceptions? 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. Some writers double I and s final, whether 
the last syllable is accented or unaccented ; as, travel, trav- 
eller; bias, biassed. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following. 

Spot, spoted; allot, alloted; annul, annuled; refer, referring; 
permit, permited; spell, speler; overset, overseting; beg,begar; 
dig, diging; begin, beginer; run, runer. 

Boil, boilling; differ, differrence; worship, worshipping, 
defeat, defeatted; embroil, embroilling; bigot, bigotted; ge- 
neral, generallize; deep, deepper. 

Rule IV. 

Words ending in 11, to avoid trebling a letter, reject one 
I when less or ly is added ; as, skill, skilless; chill, chilly. 

Remark 1. Words ending in any other double letter, retain the letter 
double before these terminations ; as, odd, oddly; careless, carelessly. 

Remark 2. Some authorities say that one I is rejected when full or ness 
is added ; as, skill, skilfull; chill, chilness. But Mr. Webster and others 
retain 11, and write, skillfull, dullness. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following 
Dull, dullly; hill, hillly; full, fullly; skill, skillless. 
Stiff, stifly; peerless, peerlesly; harmless, harmlesly. 

Rule V. 

Final e is omitted before terminations beginning with a 
vowel; as, save, saving, force, forcible; blame, blamable. 

Exceptions. Words ending in ce or ge retain e before 

able, to preserve the soft sound of c and g ; as, change, 

changeable ; peace, peaceable. 

Remark. Some writers retain e when able is added to blame, move, 
reprove, sale, and their compounds. 

What is the fourth general rule? Is one I dropped when /uZ or ness is 

What is said about words ending in added to words ending in 11 1 
any other double letter? What is the fifth rule? What excep 

tions? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. XI 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following. 
Slave, slaveish; convince, convinceing; change, changeing; 
please, pleaseing; excuse, excuseable; leave, leaveing; ride, 
rideing; blue, bluelsh. 

Charge, chargable; service, servicable; change, changable; 
singe, singing. 

Rule VI. 

Silent e is retained before terminations beginning with a 
consonant; as, close, closely; abate, abatement. 

Exception 1. The e is dropped when preceded by dg; 
as, abridge, abridgment. 

Exception 2. Duly, truly, awful, drop e. Argument is 
derived from the Latin argumentum, and not from argue. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following. 
Sincere, sincerly; sedate, sedatness; advance, advanc- 
ment; cease, ceasless; love, lovly; waste, wastful; arrange 
arrangment. 

Judge, judgement ; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, ac- 
knowledgement. 

Rule VII. 

Words ending in y, preceeded by a consonant, change y 
into i when a termination is added: as, fly, flies; merry, merrier, 
merriest, merriment. 

Exception. 1. Before ing, y is retained, that i may not be 
doubled; as, carry, carrying. 

Remark. Words ending in ie, after dropping e before ing, change i into 
y for the same reason; as, die, dying. 

Exception. 2. Dyeing, the present participle of dye, i-etains e to distin- 
guish it from dying, the participle of die. 

What is the sixth rule? What excep- What is the seventh rule? What ex- 
tions? ceptions? Is y changed when it is pre- 

ceded by a vowel? 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. Words ending in y preceeded by a vowel, retain the y ; as r 
play, playing; valley, valleys. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following. 
Happy, bappyer; mercy, mercyful; spy, spyes; carry, carry- 
edy vary, varyance; deny,denyed; lady, ladyes. 
Tarry, tarriing; deny, deniing; fancy, fanciing. 

Stay, staiing; dismay, dismaied; valley, vallies; chimney, 
chimnies ; day, daies. 

Rule VIII. 

Some words ending in II drop one I in composition; as, 

full, handful; all, always. 

Remarks Some writers improperly drop one /, in such words as fore- 
tell, enroll, recall. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following. 
Carefull, wellcome, uscfull, allways, hurtfull, allready. 
Fulfil, miscal, waterfal, sandhiL 

Promiscuous Exercises. 

Some of the words in the following exercises are to be cor- 
rected according to the preceding rules; others are intended to 
exercise the pupil in consulting the dictionary. 

Vicees are two often called folly s. 

How doo you spel recieve and believe? 

Till and untill have the- same meanning. 

Neglect no opurtunity of dooing good. 

All our cumforts procede from the Father of goodness. 

A dutyful child will be loveed by all. 

We are frequently benefitted by what we have dreadded. 

We should make a propper use of the tallents commited 
to us. 

What is the eighth rule? What remark about such words as foretell, &c.T 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

Picturs that resemble flowers smel onely of paint. 

Irreconcileable animosity is allways blameable. 

To reason with the angry, iss like whisperring to the deaf. 

With all thy geting, get understanding. 

An obliging and humble disposition is totally unconnect- 
ed with a serril and cringeing humor. 

A man may have a verry good judgment, without being 
possessed of talent. 

Abridgements of history are in most respects useles. 

Punctuation. 

Note. The rules for punctuation, for the use of capital letters, &c. will 
be given hereafter. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the classification of 
words, and their modifications. 

Words are divided into eight classes, called 
Parts of Speech. 

These parts of speech are called Noun, 
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Preposition, Adverb, 
Conjunction and Interjection. 

Note. The article belongs to the class of 



Noun. 
A noun is the name of an object; as, John, 
horse, whiteness. 

Hemark. An object may have either a real existence, or merely an exis- 
tence attributed to it by the mind. Thus, horse is the name of an object -which 
has a real existence ; but whiteness is the name of a quality, -which has no 
real existence independent of the object to which it belongs, and is merely 
considered by the mind as having an existence by itself. 

The mind may consider even non-entity, or the absence of a thing, as a 
positive idea; as, non-existence, nought, nullity, nothing. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the nouns among the following words. There are 
twelve in each division. 

1. John is a boy. James met a beggar. The man and 
his horse are out in the rain. Thomas threw a snowball. 
George went to Cincinnati in a steam-boat. 

Of what does Etymology treat? What are the names of the parts of 

Into how many classes are words di- speech? 
vided ? What is a noun? 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

2. That tree is high. The cat scratched the dog. The 
sun gives light. The fixed stars are supposed to be suns. 
Fishes swim in the sea. The snail does not. move quite so 
fast as the eagle or hawk. 

3. A big stick. The long rope. Soft, silky hair. Clean 
hands and shining faces. Frosty weather makes red noses. 
The cat ran off with a piece of meat in her mouth. Sharp 
claws. 

4. The horse runs swiftly. The swiftness of the deer is 
wonderful. A virtuous man is loved. Virtue is lovely. 
The night is dark. Darkness is gloomy. Thomas has torn 
the cover, leaves, and back of his book. 

5. These are beautiful flowers. The beauty of the 
plants in the garden. A brilliant light. The brilliancy of 
the color. Iron is hard. The hardness of stone. Howard 
was a good man. 

6. Cicero was an orator. Love is stronger than death. 
Lead is heavy. Flour is made of wheat. Falsehood is 
base. Wisdom is more precious than jewels. The stars 
were created by God. 

7. The busy bee gathers honey from flowers. In the 
spring, the trees put out leaves. In the winter, snow falls, 
and water freezes. Walnuts have hard shells, but sweet 
kernels. 

Note. When two or more words are employed to designate one indivi- 
dual, they are considered as one name or noun ; as, Robinson-Crusoe, Wil- 
liam Henry Harrison. 

8. George Washington was the first president, and was 
succeeded by John Adams. The name of the present king 
of France is Louis Philip. Daniel Boone was one of the 
first explorers of the western country. Napoleon Bonaparte 
was a great general. 

Classes of Nouns. 
Nouns are divided into two classes — proper 
and common. 

IntcMpfhat two classes are nouns divided? 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual 
object; as, John, Vesuvius. 

A common noun is a name applied to all 
objects belonging to the same class; as, boy, 
mountain. 

Vesuvius is the name of an individual mountain; but mountain is a 
name belonging to each one of a whole class of objects. These objects are 
classed together, and have the same name, on account of having certain 
properties in common. 

Remarks. 

1. The same proper name is often applied to each of several individuals, 
but not because they have certain properties in common and form a class. 
Thus, several persons are called John, but these individuals do not form 
a class. 

2. Proper names are sometimes used to designate a class, and then 
become common nouns; as, "The twelve Caesars." Here twelve individuals 
are classed together, because they have the same name, at least, in common. 

3. Proper names sometimes become common, when the names of dis- 
tinguished individuals are applied to others possessing similar qualities. 
Thus, we say of a great and good general, " He is a Washington," or, " The 
Washington of his country." * 

4. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters. 

A common noun which designates two or more 
objects, considered as one collection, or body, is 
called a collective noun; as, pair, Jbck, army, 
multitude. 

The word army denotes a great many individuals, but they are considered 
as forming a single body. 



What is a proper noun ? — a common When do proper nouns become com- 

noun? mon? 

When the same proper name belongs How do proper nouns always begin? 
to each of several individuals, why is it What is a collective noun? 
not a common noun? 



* The word dun is said to have been the proper name of a person who was distin- 
guished for his zeal in collecting debts ; it is scarcely necessary to say it is now a 
i noun. 



ETYMOLOGY. 2 7 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Name the proper and common nouns in the exercises on 
pages 14, 15: also in the following . 

The Ohio is a beautiful river. Frankfort is the capital 
of the state of Kentucky, but Louisville is the largest town. 
Henry has a dog named Fido. George went down to New- 
Orleans on the steam-boat Grey Eagle, 

The Ben Sherrod was burnt on the Mississippi, and 
many lives were lost. The falls of Niagara are between Lake 
Erie and Lake Ontario. The Andes are lofty mountains. 
The, battle of Waterloo occurred in June. William Henry 
Harrison died on the third day of April. 

2. Mention three proper nouns — three common. 

3. Put a proper noun in each of the following blank spaces. 
— behaves well. — knows her lesson. I saw — . 

— killed — . He knows — . — and — went to town. 

— and — are good girls. — can jump farther than — . 

— is a large city. — is a great country. The — is a 
beautiful river. The steam-boat — arrived at — to-day. 

4. Put a common noun in each of the following blank spaces. 

I saw my — to-day. — are larger than — . Those 

are delicious — . My — is better than yours. Your — 

is worth more than my — . This is a red — . She has a 

new — . He has written a — . The sun rising above the 

— had gilded the — of the — . 

5. Put proper nouns in the place of the common nouns in the 



A man is larger than a boy. A liar is as bad as a thief. 
A drunkard injures himself. A horse can run fast. I saw a 
girl. The bird sings sweetly. A dog barks. 
6. Put a collective noun in each of the following blank spaces. 

That is a large — . Alexander defeated the — of Darius. 
The — agreed in their verdict. A large — of cattle. A 
small — of birds. The — was dismissed. Follow not the 
— to do evil. 



18 english grammar. 

Abstract and Substantial Nouns. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, or of action, or 
being, or of a mode of action or being; as, whiteness, goodness, 
haste, confusion, action, existence. 

Remarks. 

1. These nouns are called abstract, because they are the names of quali- 
ties, &c, abstracted; that is, considered apart from the objects to which they 
belong. Thus, honesty does not really exist without being connected with 
some individual, but the mind abstracts it from all individuals, and considers 
it as an object existing by itself; as, "Honesty is the best policy." So destruc- 
tion is considered apart from any destroyer. 

2. These are usually classed among common nouns, though not very 
properly. An abstract noun does not denote a class of objects. The word 
honesty, for example, denotes a quality which is found in many individuals, 
but it is always the same quality; but the word boy, when applied to Thomas, 
does not mean the same individual that it does when applied to John. Ab- 
stract nouns, when used as such, have no plural, and do not admit of a, or an, 
or one, before them, as every noun does which denotes a class. In these 
respects abstract resemble proper nouns. 

3. The same word may-be either an abstract or a common noun, accord- 
ing to the meaning attached to it. Thus, when we say, " Virtue is lovely," 
we use the -word virtue as the name of a single quality, and it is an abstract 
noun; but when we speak of the virtues of charity, of justice, of temperance, 
&c, the word is applied to a class, and is a common noun. 

Substantial nouns are such as denote the substance of 
which objects are composed. Such are the names of metals, 
grain, &c. ; as, iron, gold, wheat* snow, jire. 

Remarks. 

1. These, as well as abstract nouns, are usually classed with common 
nouns. But they do not, strictly speaking, denote classes of objects. Like 
abstract nouns they have no plural, and do not admit a, or an, or one, before 
them. 

2. Substantial, as well as abstract nouns, may become common nouns by 
varying the sense. Thus, -when we say, " Snow is white," we use snow as a 
substantial noun ; but when we say, " A snow fell last night," we mean a 
body of snow, and use the word as a common noun. The words cottons, 
grasses, fyc, are often used instead of kinds of grass, &c; these words are in 
such cases used as common nouns. 

What is an abstract noun? What are substantial nouns? 

Why are abstract nouns so called? 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

To nouns belong number, gender, case, and 
person. 

Number. 

Number is a modification of nouns to denote 
♦ whether one object is meant, or more than one. 

There are two numbers — the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number denotes one object; as, 
chair, tree. 

The plural number denotes more than one; as, 
chairs, trees. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the number of each of the following nouns. 
Book, knife, pens, chairs, table, candle, hats, bonnet, 
handkerchief, feet, hands, eye, ears, children, ox, mice, 
geese, teeth, oxen, leaves, wives, wife, women, men. 

Tell the number of each of the nouns in the exercises on 
pages 14, 15, and 17. 

Formation of the Plural. 
The regular mode of forming the plural is by 
adding s to the singular; as, book, books; page, 
pages. 

When the singular ends with a sound which cannot unite with s, then es 
is added ; as, church, churches; box, boxes; kiss, kisses; brush, brushes. 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es; as, negro, negroes; 
wo, woes; hero, heroes. 

What belong to nouns? What is the regular mode of forming 

What is number? the plural? 

How many numbers? When is es added? 

What does the singular number de- How do nouns in o form the plural? 
note?— the plural? 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exception. Two has twos, because o has the sound of oo. Most persons 
write cantos, juntos, &c. It would be better to have uniformity. 

Other nouns in o add s only ; as, folio, folios. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into ie, and add s; 
as, lady, ladies; fly, flies. 

Other nouns in y do not change the y; as, day, days; valley, valleys. 

Proper nouns do not change the y when they are used in the plural ; as, 
the Henrys. 

The following nouns change / and fe into ve, and add s: leaf, calf, self, 
half, beef, loaf, sheaf, shelf, wolf, wharf, thief, elf, wife, knife, life. Thus, 
leaves, calves, knives, fyc. 

Staff mates staves; but the compounds of staff are regular ; as, flag- 
staff, flag-staffs. 

Other nouns in f and fe are regular ; fife, fifes; grief, griefs. 

The following nouns form the plural more irregularly. 

Child children Tooth teeth 

Man men Foot feet 

"Woman women Goose geese 

Ox oxen Mouse mice 

Louse lice Penny pence 

Die dice 

Kine was formerly the plural of cow. 

Brother has, besides the regular plural, brethren, which is now used only 
in the solemn style. 

Die, when it means a stamp, has a regular plural. 

We use pence when referring merely to the value, and pennies when 
referring to [the number of coins. Thus, six pence may be all in one coin ; 
but six pennies are six separate coins. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, stoine, vermin, 
means, odds, news. 

When people signifies a community or body of persons, it is a collective 
noun in the singular number, and has sometimes, though rarely, a plural ; as, 
*' Many peoples, and nations, and tongues, and kings," Revelations x. 11. 
When it signifies persons, it is plural ; as, " Many people were present." 

The words, alms, amends, riches, wages, and pains (in the sense of labo- 
rious effort,) are sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently as 
plural. 

Bellows is by some considered as plural, like tongs, scissors, fyc. ; as, 
" To make a good orator of a pair of bellows." — Tattler, No. 70. By others 
it is considered both singular and plural. 

How do nouns in y form the plural? Name the nouns winch are alike in 

—nouns in / and fe ? both numbers. 

What is the plural of child, <Jc? What is said of people?— of alms, amends 

What is said of kine ? — of brother ?— of —of bellows, <f-c. ? 
die ? — of pence and pennies? 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

Gallows is used by some as both singular and plural ; others make the 
plural gallowses. See Webster's Dictionary. 

Fish has a regular plural -, as, " Two small fishes;" but fish is often used 
as plural; as, " We are to blame for eating these fish. 7 ' Trout, salmon, &c, 
are both singular and plural. 

Such names of sciences as mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, meta- 
physics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, are properly plural, though they 
are sometimes construed as singular. Good writers, to avoid a harsh con- 
struction, often join the word science to these terms ; as, " The science of poli- 
tics contains two parts," instead of " Politics contains two parts." 

Horse and foot when they denote bodies of soldiers are plural ; as, " The 
ax-my consisted of five hundred horse and five thousand foot." 

Sail, when it denotes a collection of ships, is plural ; as, " The fleet con- 
sisted of forty sail" 

Cannon and shot are sometimes used as plural. 

Yoke is sometimes plural ; as " Five hundred yoke of oxen." Bible. 

Most compounds form their plural regularly, by adding s to the singular ; 
as, handful, handfuls; maid-servant, maid-servants; outpouring, outpourings. 

But sometimes the noun of the compound, when it comes first, is treated 
as if not coalescing with the other parts, and the s is added to the simple 
noun, and not to the end of the compound -word; &s, father-in-law, fathers-in- 
law; court-martial, courts-martial; knight-errant, knights-errant. 

Man-servant changes both the simple words ; as, men-servants. So, wo- 
men-servants. See Gen. xx. 14. 

Proper names take the plural form when two or more persons of the same 
name are classed together; as, " The Mortons." So, when a title (Miss, 
Mr., &c.) is prefixed; as, "The Miss Mortons;" "The Mr. Andersons.'' 
The title in such cases may be considered as an adjective ; thus, the word 
Miss comprehends the ideas expressed by the adjectives unmarried and 
female ; or, the title and the name may be considered as forming a compound 
name. 

If the persons are spoken of individually, the title takes the plural form ; 
as, "Misses Julia and Maria Morton ;" "Messrs.* George and Thomas An- 



What is said of gallows ?— of fish ?— of What takes place when a title is join- 

mathematics, ethics, tyc.l ed with a proper noun in the plural? 

What is said of horse and foot?— of sail? When does the title take the plural 

— of cannon and shot? — of yoke? form? 



How do compounds form the plural? 
When do proper nouns take a plural 
form? 



* Messrs is an abbreviation of the word Messieurs, the plural of the French word 
Monsieur, which corresponds to the English word Mr. 



22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Several nouns derived from foreign languages retain the plural forms of 
the languages from which tbey are derived. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Animalculam 


animalcula 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Apparatus 


apparatus 


Apex 


apices 


Appendix^ 


appendices 


Arcanum 


arcana 


AutomatOn 


automata 


Axis 


axes 


Basis 


bases 


Beau £ 


beaux 


Calx 


calces 


Cherub £ 


cherubim 


Crisis 


crises 


Criterion $ 


criteria 


Datum 


data 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Diaeresis 


diaereses 


Eflluvium 


effluvia 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


E mphasis 


emphases 


Encomium $ 


encomia 


Erratum 


errata 


Focus 


foci 


Formula % 


formulae 



Singula*. 

Genus 

Hiatus 

Hippopotamus 

Hypothesis 

Ignis fatu&s 

Lamina 

Magus 

Medium 



genera 

hiatus 

hippopotami 

hypotheses 

ignes fatui 

laminae 

magi 

media 



Memorandum % memoranda 
Metamorphosis metamorphoses- 



Monsieur 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Series 

Seraph % 

Species 

Stamen 

Stimulus 

Stratum 

Thesis 

Vertex 

Vortex 

Virtuoso 



messieurs 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii 

series 

seraphim 

species 

stamina 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertices 

vortices 

virtuosi 



The words marked % have also the plural in s ; as, appendixes, beaus r che- 
rubs, criterion?,, encomiums, memorandums, seraphs. Some writers give the 
plural in s to other words in this list , as, calxes, apparatuses, mediums, 
focuses, stamens. 

Genius has genii -when aerial spirits are meant ; but when persons of 
genius are meant, geniuses. 

Index has indices when referring to algebraic quantities ; but indexes 
when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. 

To denote the plural of mere characters, s preceded by an apostrophe (') is 
added; as, two a's; three 5's. 

Some words derived from foreign languages have no singular ; as, anti- 
podes, credenda, literati, minutia. So, vertebrata, infusoria, some other sci- 
entific terms. 

Abstract and substantial nouns, from the nature of their signification, 
have no plural. There are no such words as whitenesses, hastes, golds, Jwnesties. 

But where nouns, which are usually abstract or substantial, are used as 
common, they may have the plural form. 

Such nouns as scissors, lungs, tongs, have no singular, because they 
denote objects which consist of tic o parts. 



What is said of some nouns derived 
from foreign languages? 

What is the plural of animalculum,<fyc.? 

What is said about genius?- index? 

How is the plural of mere characters 
formed? 



Name some nouns tvhichhave no sin- 
gular. 

What is said of abstract and substantial 
nouns? 

What is said of such nouns as scissors, 
4-c? 



Etymology. 23 

Some nouns in the singular number have a plural form ; such are molasses, 
measles, 8pc. Oats, according to analogy, would be in the singular, since it 
is a substantial noun, like wheat, rye, fyc; but it is usually construed as plural. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the plural form of the following words. 

Table, door, chair, step, window, stove, oven, shovel, star, 

sun, moon, plant, candlestick, monarch, farmer, face, place, 

case. 

Box, fox, miss, wish, lash, lass, loss, inch, watch, atlas. 

Volcano, hero, cargo, veto, calico, potato, buffalo, me- 
mento, mulatto, manifesto, octavo, motto. 

Folio, bagnio, seraglio, punctilio, nuncio, bamboo, cuckoo, 
cameo. 

Story, history, mystery, lady, baby, fancy, study, duty, 
cherry, berry, theory, fury, ally, sty, entry, 

Day, play, chimney, alley, essay, ray, turkey, kidney, 
galley, valley. 

Calf, self, beef, leaf, sheaf, shelf, life, grief, hoof, brief, 
roof, scarf, chief. 

Child, ox, man, woman, tooth, foot, goose, mouse, louse, 
die, penny, brother. 

Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, means, odds, news. 

Handful, spoonful, cupful, sister-in-law, mother-in-law 
commander-in-chief, court-martial. 

Animalcule, antithesis, apparatus, &c. 

Gender. 

Gender is a modification of nouns to denote 
the distinction of sex. 

There are three genders— masculine, feminine, 
and neuter. 



What is said of molasses, 4c ? How many genders? 

What is gender? 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns which denote males are of the masculine 
gender ; as, ??ian, boy, lion. 

Nouns which denote females are of the feminine 
gender ; as, woman, girl, lioness. 

Nouns which denote neither males nor females 
are of the neuter gender ; as tree, paper, book. 

Note. The word neuter means neither. There is a male sex, and a. female 
sex, but no neuter sex ; neuter gender is merely a grammatical term applied 
to the names of objects which have no distinction of sex. 

Remarks. 

1. Of some animals the sex is unknown, or not regarded in language. 

2. For some objects we have terms which are applied to every indivi- 
dual in the class, without reference to sex ; and when we wish to express the 
distinction of sex, we either, (a) use -words which are applied exclusively to 
the male or the female sex ; or, (b) connect with the name of the object a 
word which denotes its sex. Thus, 

(a) The term sheep is applied to every individual in the class, without 
regard to sex ; but ram is applied to the male, and ewe to the female. 

(b) Sparrow is applied to each individual in the class ; and to express 
distinction of sex, we say, cock-spar roto, hen-sparroic. 

3. For some objects, we have those terms only which denote the male 
and the female, and none common to all the individuals in the class, without 
regard to sex ; as, horse, mare, gander, goose. 

In such cases, if we wish to denote the whole class, we either, 

(a) Use both the masculine and feminine nouns; as, "Brothers and 
sisters should love each other;" or, 

(b) Employ a circumlocution; as, " The children of the same parents 
should love each other ;" or, 

(c) Use the term applied to that sex, whether male or female, to which 
the attention is most frequently directed, to include the whole class. Thus, 
when we say, " Horses are graminiverous animals," we include mares ; and 
when we say, " Geese are noisy," we include ganders. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Of words which are applied to every individual in the 



What nouns are of the masculine gen- Give some examples of words which 

der?— of the feminine?— of the neuter? are applied to every individual in the 

What is said of such words as sheep and class, the male and female being denot- 

sparrow ?— of horse, mare, 4c? ed by other words. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

class, without reference to sex ; the male and female being 
denoted by other words. 

Female. 

woman 

daughter 

mother 

doe 

hind 

roe 

ewe 

sow 

spawner 

hen 

2. Of names applied to every individual in the class ; 
other words being connected with the name of the object to 
denote the sex. 



Name common to alL 


Male. 


Person 


man 


Child 


son 


Parent 


father 


C of differ-) 


buck 


Deer 1 ent > 


stag 


(_ kinds, j 


hart 


Sheep 


ram 


Hog 
Fish 


boar 


milter 


Bird or fowl 


cock 



Relative 


male relative 


female relative 


Servant 


man-servant 


maid-servant 


Sparrow 


cock-sparrow 


hen-sparrow 


Goat 


he-goat 


she-goat 


Turkey- 


turkey cock 


turkey hen. 



3. Of different words applied to each of the sexes ; no 
term common to both being in use. 



Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Beau 


belle 


Boy 


girl 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Brother 


sister 


Bull 


cow 


Bullock or steer heifer 


Dog 


bitch 


Drake 


duck 


Friar [monk] 


nun 


Gander 


goose 



Male. 


Female. 


Horse 


mare 


Husband 


wife 


King 


queen 


Lad 


lass 


Lord 


lady 


Nephew 


niece 


Sir 


madam 


Sloven 


slut 


Uncle 


aunt 


Wizard 


witch 



To this class belong the following, in which the feminine 
noun is formed by adding a termination to the masculine, 
which in many instances undergoes some change. They are 
chiefly appellations derived from the offices and occupations 
of mankind. 

The feminine termination ess is the regular English ter- 
mination ; the other feminine terminations belong to foreign 
languages. 

Give some examples of words which Give some examples of different 
are applied to every individual in the words applied to each of the sexes- 
class, other words being connected with no term common to both sexes being 
the name of the object to denote the in use. 
sex. 



26 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Abbott 


abbess 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Actor 


actress 


Patron 


patroness 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Peer 


peeress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Poet 


poetess 


Baron 


baroness 


Priest 


priestess 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Prince 


princess 


Caterer 


cateress 


Prior 


prioress 


Chanter 


chantress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Conductor 


conductress 


Protector 


protectress 


Count 


countess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Songster 


songstress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Duke 


duchess 


Tiger 


tigress 


Elector 


electress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Embassador * 


embassadress 


Tutor 


tutoress or tutress 


Emperor 


empress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sultan 


sultaness or sultana 


Giant 


giantess 


Czar 


czarina 


God 


goddess 


Don 


donua 


G overnor 


governess 


Infant 


infanta 


Heir 


heiress 


Signer 


signora 


Host 


hostess 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Hunter 


huntress 


Executor 


executrix 


Instructor 


instructress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Jew 


Jewess 


Hero 


heroine 


Lion 


lioness 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Margrave 


margravine 


Master 


mistress 







To these add widower \ widow ; the masculine in this case 
being formed from the feminine. 

Remarks. 

1. Some grammarians use the term common gender to include those 
nouns which are common to both sexes. This is unnecessary. When the 
gender of such -words is not determined by the context, we may say they 
are masculine or feminine : when the gender is known from the context, 
they are of the gender so ascertained ; and when they include both sexes, 
they are masculine and feminine. 

Thus, in the first of the following sentences, cousin is masculine or femi- 
nine ; in the second, masculine ; in the third, feminine ; in the fourth, cousins 
is masculine and feminine. 

" John visited his cousin." 

" John visited his cousin Thomas." 

" John visited his cousin Mary." 

" John visited his cousins Thomas and Mary." 

2. Animals, whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are 
generally spoken of as neuter; as, "He shot at the deer, and missed it." 
On the same principle we say of a child, " It is sick." 



Of what gender are those nouns which 
are applied to both sexes? 
How are animals, whose sex is un- 



known, or unnecessary to 
spoken of ? 



regarded, 



Also written ambassador 



ETYMOLOGY, 27 

3. In reality, no objects except animals have the distinction of sex ; but 
m figurative language inanimate objects are often regarded as distinguished 
by sex. Thus, we say of the sun, " He is shining f or, of the moon, " She is 
beautiful." 

4. When inanimate objects are represented as having sex, the names of 
those which are distinguished for strength, power, or other qualities of the 
male sex are regarded as masculine , and the names of those distinguished 
for beauty, loveliness, or other feminine qualities are considered as feminine* 
Thus, tbe sun, death, time, winter, war, anger,- are masculine ; and the 
moon, earth, nature, virtue, spring, peace, health, are feminine- 

5. A collective noun, when used properly as such, that is, when it 
denotes a single collection of objects, or is in the plural number, is neuter j 
as, " The army destroyed every thing in its course." But when reference is 
made to the objects composing the collection, it takes the gender of the indi- 
viduals referred to, 

EXERCISES, 

1 . Name three nouns of the masculine gender ; — three of 
the feminine ; — three of the neuter. 

2. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns. 

Hero, countess, book, toy, ladies, paper, gold, women, 
lord, master, candle, scissors, lamp, fire, tongs, Jewess, 
priestess, goose, watch, clock, wisdom, whiteness, cousin, 
parent. 

3. Tell the gender of each of the nouns in the exercises 
on pages 14, 15, and 17. 

Case. 

Case signifies the relation which nouns have 
to other words. 

There are three cases — -nominative, possessive, 
and objective. 

Nominative Case. 

When a noun is the subject of a verb, it is in^ 
the nominative case ; as, " John runs ;" " The dog 
was killed." 

When inanimate objects are represen- Of what gender are collective nouns? 

ted as having sex, what nouns are of What is case? How many cases? 

the masculine gender? What of the When is a noun in the nominative 

feminine? case? 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 1. The subject of a verb is that of which something is affirmed. 
It may usually be known by its answering the question made by putting 
zcho or what before the verb. Thus, if we ask, " Who runs ?" the answer 
will be, " John;" if we ask, " What was killed ?" the answer will be, " The 
dog-." John and dog, then, are in the nominative case. 

Remark 2. The nominative case is sometimes used independent of any 
verb, especially when an object is addressed ; as, "Jane, Mary is industrious." 
Jane is said to be in the nominative case independent. 

EXERCISES. 

Seventeen- of the following nouns are in the nominative 

case : name them. The words in italics are verbs, 

Peter whistles. Jane sings. Mary sings sweetly. The 
horse gallops. Birds j#y in the air. Whales swim in the sea. 
Josephine is beautiful. Benjamin went to town. Charles is 
attentive. The traveler killed the robber. George saw a 
deer. The rabbit jumped into the dog's mouth. The snake 
bit the dog. The elephant is large. The robber was killed 
by the traveler. Joseph jumped two inches. Solomon excels 
Joseph. 

Possessive Case. 

When a noun denotes the relation of property 
or possession, it is in the possessive case; as, 
"Johns hat." 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually 
formed by adding s preceded by an apostrophe ['] to the 
nominative ; as, " William's book ;" " The boy's pen." 

When the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive plu- 
ral is formed by adding the apostrophe only ; as, " The two 
boys' hats." 

When pural nouns do not end in s, they form their posses- 
sive by taking both the apostrophe and s ; as, " Men's hats." 

What is the subject of a verb? How is the possessive case formed in 

How may it usually be known? the singular?— in the plural? 

When is a noun said to be in the norni- How is the possessive case plural 

native case independent? formed, when the nominative plural does 

When is a noun in the possessive case? not end in s ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

Remark. When the nominative singular and nominative plural are alike, 
some place the apostrophe after the s in the possessive plural, to distinguish 
k from the possessive singular ; as, Sing, deer's : Plur. deers'. 

Sometimes, when a word ends with the sound of s, or z, 
the addition of s would create a harshness of sound ; in 
which case the apostrophe alone is added ; as, " Goodness' 
sake ;" " Archimides' screw." 

Remark. No definite rule can be given on this subject ; the ear mast 
decide. "We say, " The witness's oath ;" " Clarence's dream ;" " James's 
novels." 

In compound words, the sign of the possessive case is 

placed at the end; as, " His father-in-law's horse ;" "The 

knight-err ant's adventure." 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Name six nouns in the possessive case. 

2. Write or spell the possessive case of the following words. 
Man, boy, girl, woman, men, boys, girls, John, James, 

Thomas, beauty, ox, master, mistress, councilman, alder- 
men, ladies. 

Objective Case. 

When a noun is the object of a transitive verb, 
or of a preposition, it is in the objective case ; as, 
" John struck William ;" " Thomas jumped over 
the log!' 

Here, William is the object of the verb struck; and log is the object of 
the preposition over. 

Re?narks. 

1. The object may generally be known by its forming the answer to the 
question made by putting whom or what after the verb or preposition. Thus, 
" John struck whomV Answer. William. "Thomas jumped over whatl" 
Answer. The log. 

2. The noun is in the objective case when me, us, him, or them will 
make sense in its place. 

When is the possessive singular form- Where is the sign of the possessive 
ed by adding the apostrophe alone to the case placed in compound words? 
nominative? And why? When is a noun in the objective case? 

How may the object generally be known? 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Thirty of the following nouns are in the objective ease ; 
name them. The transitive verbs are in capital letters, and the 
prepositions in italics. 

The snake bit the dog. The wolf bit the horse. John 

threw a stone. The musician broke his violin. Peter saw 

his shadow. Benjamin went to Boston. Boys love sport. 

Mary threw the book into the fire. Irene cracked a walnut 

with a hammer. George struck a lamp-post with his fist. 

Edward went from Louisville to New-Orleans. Birds fly in 

the air. Peter invited Theodore. Edmund saw a rabbit. 

Anne cut an apple. The frost injured the corn. The 

hurricane destroyed the building. The fox ran through the 

thicket. Julius admired the brightness of the sun. Rollo 

ran up the steps, into the house, and fell over a chair into a 

tub of water. The horses draw the wagon. 

Remark. The objective case -with the preposition of is often used instead 
of the possessive case. Thus, instead of " God's power," we may say, "The 
power of God." It is often more correct to employ this construction, than to 
use the possessive. 

EXERCISES. 

Change the following in the same way. 
John's book. The sun's splendor. Beauty's power. Sla- 
very's chains. God's goodness. The comet's tail. For 
neatness' sake. 

Person. 
Person denotes the character which the noun 
has, according as the object is represented as 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 

When the speaker mentions his own name, or an appella- 
tion belonging to him, it is said to be of the first person ; as, 
11 1, John, saw it ;" " I, the governor, make this proclamation ;" 
" We, men, are sinful." 

What is often used instead of the Define person. When is a noun said 
possessive case? to be of the first person? 



ETYMOLOGY. 8l 

When in an address we mention the name of the object 
addressed, or any appellation belonging to him, it is said to 
be of the second person ; as, " Theodore, give me my knife ;" 
" Children, obey your parents." 

When an object is spoken of, the noun is of the third 
person ; as, " John saw it ;" " Men are sinful ;" " Theodore 
gave me my knife." 

Remark. A noun is never the subject of a verb, except when of the 
third person. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the person of the following nouns. 

Mary, you are a good girl. I, John Thompson, hereby 
certify. John Thompson certifies. Consistency, thou art a 
jewel. 

I, Darius, make a decree. William, where are you going? 
I am John Smith. You are Peter Dudley. He is Samuel 
King. Move along, old horse. Oh ! my friends ! I am tired. 
My child, come to me, your father. I, James K. Polk, Pre- 
sident of the United States. Our Father, who art in Heaven! 

Declension. 

Declension is the regular arrangement of a noun 
according to its numbers and cases. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Boy. 2. Man. 

Singular. 
Norn. Boy 
Pos. boy's 
Obj. boy 

3. Ladv. 

Singular. 

Norn. Lady 
Pos. lady's 
Obj. lady 

When is a noun said to be of the What is declension? 
second person? When of the third? Decline boy, man, lady, box. 



Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


boys 


Norn. Man , 


men 


boys' 


Pos. man's 


men's 


boys 


Obj. man 
4. Box. 


men 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


ladies 


Nom. Box 


boxes 


ladies' 


Pos. box's 


boxes' 


ladies 


Obj. box 


boxes 



32 english grammar. 

Parsing. 

To parse a word is to tell its properties, and its 
relation to other words. 

There are twenty-jive nouns to be parsed in the following 
exercises. The words in italics are prepositions, and those in 
capitals are transitive verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

Peter drove the horse from John's barn. Columbus 
discovered America. The house was consumed by fire. 
The rain destroyed the crop. Jonathan has a book. 
The elephant has tusks. The colt ran away from Joseph. 
Mary loves birds. The gardener cultivates flowers. Rain 
is refreshing to the plants. The cow kicked the dog. Thomas 
sits above Robert. 

To parse a noun, 

Tell 1. What part of speech it is — and why? 

2. Whether proper or common — and why? 

3. Its number — and why? 

4. Its gender — and why? 

5. Its case — and why? 

6. The Rule. 

MODEL. 

Peter drove the horse from John's harn. 
Peter, 
Is a noun — the name of an ohject ; proper noun — the name of an indi- 
vidual ohject ; in the singular number — it denotes hut one object ; mascu- 
line gender — it denotes a male ; third person — the name of an object spoken 
of; in the nominative case — the subject of the verb drove. 

Rule. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

Horse, 
Is a noun, &c. ; common noun — a name applied to all objects belonging 
to the same class ; masculine gender ; third person ; singular number ; objec- 
tive case — the object of the transitive verb drove. 

Rule. The object of a transitive verb is put in the objective case. 

What is parsing? How do you parse a noun? 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

John's, 
Is a noun, &c. ; in the possessive case — it denotes the relation of posses- 
sion ; it is placed before the noun barn. 

Rule. The possessive case is placed before the name oftheobjectpossessed. 

Barn, 
Is a noun, &c. ; in the objective case — the object of the preposition/rom. 
Rule. The object of a preposition is put in the objective case. 

Note. It is not necessary to keep the pupil constantly repeating the defi- 
nitions ; when he becomes perfectly familiar with the subject, let him tell the 
gender, &c, without giving the reason. 



Adjective. 

An adjective is a word which qualifies or limits 
the meaning of a noun; as, "A good boy;" "a 
sweet apple;" "one hook" "this man." 

Remark. The word adjective signifies adding, or added; and is so called 
because it adds a quality or limitation to the meaning of a noun ; or because 
it is added to a noun.* 

Classes of Adjectives. 

There are two classes of adjectives — qualifying 
adjectives, and limiting adjectives. 

A qualifying adjective expresses some quality 
which belongs to the object; as, "A bad road;" 
" a ripe nut ;" " a violent storm." 

Remark. Qualifying adjectives not only express qualities belonging to 
the object, but at the same time limit the application of the no an. Thus, the 



What is an adjective? What does a qualifying adjective ex- 

What does the word adjective signify? press? 
Into what two classes are adjectives 
divided? 



* The word adjective is generally said to signify added to ; but words ending in ive 
have usually an active sense. Thus, destructive signifies not destroyed, but destroy' 
ng; corrosive signifies not corroded, but corroding. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

expression, " a red apple,*' does not apply to so many objects as the word 
apple does ; since there are not so many red apples as there are apples. The 
more adjectives we add to the noun, the fewer objects we include. The 
expression, " a stoeet, melloio, red apple," comprehends more qualities than 
" a red apple," but does not extend to so many objects. 

This is what grammarians mean when they say that adjectives increase 
the comprehension, but decrease the extension of nouns. Limiting adjectives 
affect only the extension. 

Limiting adjectives do not express any quality 
belonging to the object; but merely limit the 
meaning of the noun; as, " One book;" "ihejirst 
man;" "that thing;" ^ forty thieves." 

Those limiting adjectives which are used in counting and numbering are 
called numeral adjectives ; as, one, two, three, etc.; first second, third, etc. 
Adjectives derived from proper names are sometimes called proper adjectives. 

Remarks. 

1. The limiting adjectives, each, every, either, neither, former, latter, some, 
other, any, one, all, such, none, this, that, and the plural forms, these, those, 
are sometimes improperly called adjective pronouns. 

2. The reason given for this is, that they sometimes belong to nouns like 
adjectives, and at other times stand for nouns like pronouns. Thus, in this 
sentence, "Each man has his faults," each limits the meaning of the noun 
man; but if man is omitted, it is said that each stands for man ; as, " Each 
has his faults." 

3. But it seems hardly correct to represent these adjectives as becoming 
pronouns, when the noun is omitted. Other adjectives might be called pro- 
nouns on the same grounds. Thus, good might be called a pronoun in this 
sentence, " The good may err," because persons is omitted. 

Note. Other and one will be mentioned again -when we come to speak 
of pronouns. 

4. The limiting adjective what is sometimes called an interrogative pro- 
noun, when it is used in asking questions ; as, " What man is that ?" 

5. This and that are the only adjectives which have a different form 
before plural nouns. 

6. None is used for no, when the noun is omitted ; when no is used the 
noun is always expressed. Thus, " No person is so deaf that he will not hear;" 



What is a limiting adjective? What is said of what ? 
What are numeral adjectives? What limiting adjectives are some- 
what are proper adjectives? times called adjective pronouns ? 
What adjectives change their forms What is said of the use of none and no? 
before plural nouns? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



35 



** None is so deaf that he will not hear." None, in this case, should be parsed 
as belonging to person understood. This word was formerly used when the 
noun was expressed ; " We shall have none end." Bacon. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Join a qualifying adjective to each of the following nouns. 

Table, chair, hat, cap, book, inkstand, pen, hand, hair, 

knife, window, boy, girl, woman, man, bird, cow, horse, 

dog, cat, coat, shoe, watch, tree, day, night, sun, moon, star. 

2. Join a limiting adjective to each of the following. 

Pen, gun, bullets, box, watch, table, birds, men, hand, 
gate, feather, foot. 

3. Join one qualifying and one limiting adjective to each of the 

following. 

Apple, pear, peach, road, street, town, bottle, fire, broom, 
boxes, balls. 

4. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives. 

Good, bad, fair, one, this, that, what, benevolent, happy, 
every, former, rich, poor, high, low, latter, tall, weak, long- 
handed, weak-minded, profitable, amusing, loving, Roman, 
American, English, Scotch, Irish. 

5. Which of the preceding are qualifying and which limiting 

adjectives ? 

6. What nouns do the adjectives in the following, sentences 

qualify or limit? 
You may take this book, and I will take that. Let me 
die the death of the righteous. The wicked are like the 
troubled ocean. Anne is a good, but Jane is a bad girl. 
Providence rewards the good, but punishes the bad. What 
boy is that ? What do I see? All have their faults. 

Nouns become adjectives, when used to qualify other 
nouns ; as, " The river bank ;" " a gold cup ;" "Boston crack- 
ers ;" " the fire king ; " Kentucky girls." 

When do nouns become adjectives? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Use the following nouns in such a way as to make them 
adjectives. 
Silver, ocean, iron, mountain, corn, tin, rose, hemp, oak r 
paper, leather, cloth, muslin, coat, New-York. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

The variations, which adjectives undergo when 
objects are compared, are called comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison — 'the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree, or simple form of the 
adjective, simply expresses the quality of a thing, 
without reference to other degrees of the same 
quality ; as, " A sweet apple." 

The comparative is used when the quality is 
represented as belonging to one of two objects, in 
a higher degree than to the other ; as, " This 
apple is sweeter than that " " These apples are 
sweeter than those." 

The superlative is used when the quality repre- 
sented as belonging to one of several objects, in 
a higher degree than to any of the rest ; as, " This 
apple is the sweetest of all ;" " The rose is the fair- 
est of flowers." 

Remarks. 

1. The office of the comparative and superlative is not to express a higher 
degree of the quality than the positive ; the latter may express a higher 
degree than either of the others. Thus, when we say of an apple, that it is 
siveet,yve may assert the existence of a greater degree of the quality, than 

What is comparison? parative— the superlative. 

How many degrees? What is the remark about the office of 

Define the positive degree— the com- the comparative and superlative? 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

when we say that it is sweeter than some other apple, or stoeetest of all on 
the tree. 

2. When the comparative is used, a comparison is made between the 
same quality, usually as it exists in different objects ; but sometimes the com- 
parison is made between two degrees of the quality in the same object at 
different times, or in different circumstances ; as, " He is wiser to-day than he 
was yesterday '" " He is happier at home than he is abroad." 

3. Sometimes the comparison is made between the degree of the quality 
which really exists, and that which is supposed, or said to exist ; as, " He is 
wiser than he is supposed to be." 

4. The comparison is sometimes made between two degrees of different 
qualities in the same object ; as, " He is more learned than wise ;" that is, 
" His learning is greater than his wisdom." This is, in reality, a comparison 
between two objects — learning and wisdom. 

Formation of the Comparative and Superla- 
tive. 

The comparative is regularly formed by adding 
er, and the superlative, by adding est, to the posi- 
tive ; as, 

Sweet, sweeter, sweetest ; 

Wise, wiser, wisest ; 

Red, redder, reddest. 

See general rules for spelling, iii. and v. 

The same change in signification is made by prefixing the- 
adverbs more and most '; as, sweet, more sweet, most sweet. 

This is the usual way of comparing adjectives of more 
than one syllable ; as, graceful, more graceful, mast graceful ; 
not gracefuler, gracefulest. 

But words of two syllables, ending in y, or in le after a 

mute, or accented on the last syllable, may be compared by 

adding er and est ; as, happy, happier, happiest ; able, abler y 

ablest ; polite, politer, politest. 

Some other adjectives of two syllables are sometives compared by adding 
er and est; as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest. 

When the comparative is used, is the In what other way may the sam& 

comparison always made between two change in meaning be expressed? 
degrees of the same quality in different What is the usual way of comparing 

objects? adjectives of more than one syllable? 

How are the comparative and superla- What adjectives of two syllables are 

tive regularly formed? compared by adding, er and est l 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Some adjectives are compared in an irregular manner ; as, 



Good, 


better, 


best ; 


Bad, 


worse, 


worst ; 


Little, 


less, 


least ; 


Much, 


more. 


most ; 


Many, 


more, 


most ; 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 



Remarks, 

1. Near and late have, besides the regular forms of the superlative, next 
and last. 

2. Old has, in addition to the regular comparative and superlative, elder ', 
and eldest. These are formed from eld, which is now obsolete. 

3. The superlative is sometimes formed by adding most to the positive 
or comparative ; as, inmost, or innermost; hindmost, or hindermost ; topmost. 

4. A slight degree of quality is expressed by adding ish; as, stoeet, 
sweetish. 

5. The adverbs less and least are sometimes used with the adjective, 
when the object is represented as having a lower degree of the quality than 
belongs to the object or objects with which it is compared ; as, " This apple 
is less sweet tban that." 

6. The adverbs more and most, less and least, should not be parsed as 
part of the adjective. More is an adverb in the comparative degree, &c. 

7. Most adjectives, which denote qualities that cannot exist in different 
degrees, are not compared ; as, round, square, two-handed, almighty. 

8. But many adjectives which denote invariable qualities are used in 
the comparative and superlative by the best writers ; as, " The sight is the 
most perfect of all our senses." Addison. By this is meant that the sight 
approaches nearer to perfection than any other sense does. Of the same kind 
are just, upright, true, honest, complete, accurate, correct, regular, good 
white, safe, fyc. 

Note 1. The best writers and speakers in the language are in the habit 
of constantly using such expressions as more perfect. Language is not gov- 
erned by the rules of logic. It would be improper to say that one thing is 
perfect, and another more perfect than that ; but when we say that one thing 
is more perfect than another, -we do not necessarily mean that either is per- 
fect, but merely that one approaches nearer to perfection than the other. One 
man may be better than another, when neither is perfectly good.* Most 
grammarians give incorrect definitions of the comparative and superlative. 
See Comparison of Adjectives, Remark 1 . 

Compare good, bad, <J-c. When are less and least joined with 

Compare near and old. the adjective? 

What is said of the superlative in What adjectives are not compared? 

most '. What is said of more perfect, <$-c? 
What is said of the termination ish ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

Note 2. Some grammarians would say, less unjust, least imperfect, rather 
than juster, most perfect, Spc; but it would sound rather strange, if we should 
say,, " Aristides was less unjust than any other Athenian ;" or, if a lover 
should say of his mistress, " Angelica is the least imperfect of her sex." 

1. Name the comparative and superlative of each of the follow- 
ing adjectives. 
Red, rich, warm, hot, illustrious, ample, happy, ripe, able, 
discreet, industrious, learned, good, high, just, near, insignifi- 
cant, studious, little. 

2. In what degree is each of the following adjectives ? 

Wisest, better, good, politest, happy, virtuous, greater, 
less, richest, apter, noble, noblest. 

3. Correct the following. 

Beautifuler, magnanimouser, blissfuler, agreabler, virtu- 
ousest, amusingest. 



Articles. 

The limiting adjectives, a or an, and the, are 
called articles. 

The is called the definite, and a or an the 
indefinite article. 

When the definite article is used, we refer to some "parti- 
cular object, or objects, either before spoken of^or pointed 
out in some other way.f 

When the indefinite article is used, we refer to some one 
of a class, but to no particular one. 

The word hook is applied to each one of a whole class of objects : if I say, 
" Give me a book," I call for any one of these objects : if I say, " Give me 
the book," I ask for some particular book. 

What words are called articles? When is the definite article used? 

Which is the definite arcle?— the in- When is the indefinits article used? 
definite? 

* " Why callest thou me good? There is none good but one, that is, God." Mat- 
thew xix. 17. 

f The is never used when the noun is omitted, but in its stead, that and those are 
employed; as, " The course of life is short, that of glory eternal;" *! The duties 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A is used before words beginning with consonant sounds ; 
an before those beginning with vowel sounds ; as, a tree, 
an apple. 

The indefinite article originally meant one. An was formerly employed 
much more frequently than it is now ; n is not added to a to form an, hut it is 
dropped from an to make a. 

Remark 1. In some words beginning with h, this letter is silent, and the 
first sound being a vowel sound, an is used, and not a ; as, an hour. 

Remark 2. Some words, whose first letter is a vowel, commence with a 
consonant sound, and, consequently, a, and not an, is used before them ; a», 
a university, a eunuch, a ewe, many a one. University, eunuch, and ewe 
are pronounced as if they commenced with y, and one is pronounced wun. 

Remark 3. An is used before words beginning with h not silent, if the 
accent is on the second syllable ; as, an heroic action ; an historical romance. 

The sound of h is weaker, that is, the breath is less forcibly emitted, when 
the word is accented on the second syllable, than when the accent is on the 
first. The word historical almost seems to begin with a vowel sound. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct whatever errors occur in the following. 

A apple. An peach. An hand. An hireling. A hour. 
An union. An European. An human being. Many an one. 
A army. A honorable man. An heart. A article. A 
adjective. An yeoman. A umpire. An useful man. An 
unit. A historical account. Anhistory. An heroic action. 
An hero. A Hibernian tale. An university. An union. 
A herbarium. A hereditary title. A heretical opinion. 
A hexameter. A hosanna. An unicorn. An universal be- 
lief. An uniform appearance. An Unitarian. An useless 
labor. An usurer. 



When is a used? When is an used? When is an used before words begin- 

Why is an used before hour ? ning with h ? 

Why is a used before university ? When is a used before vowels? 

When is an used before h not silent? 

of men differ from those of women." In these examples that and those are not used 
in their usual sense, but in the sense of the. The noun course is understood in the 
former sentence, duties in the latter. If we supply the ellipsis, the must be em- 
ployed; as, " The course of life is short, the course of glory eternal;" " The duties 
of men differ from the duties of women." It would not convey the same idea to 
say, " The course of life is short, that course of glory eternal." &c. 

The was originally the imperative mode, and that the participle of the same 
Anglo-Saxon verb thcan, to take, to assume. 



ETYMOLOGY. 4j[ 

The is used with nouns either in the singular or the plural number ; as, 
the book ; the books. 

A or an is used with nouns in the singular number only. We cannot 
say a books. 

A seems to belong to plural nouns in such expressions as the following: — 
"A dozen apples ;" "A hundred books ;" "A thousand men ;" "A great many 
men." 

But a does not belong to apple, books, and men in the preceding exam- 
ples, but to dozen, hundred, and many, which, in such cases, are collective 
nouns in the singular number. There is an ellipsis of the preposition of ; 
thus, a dozen of men ; a great many of men ; a hundred of men. 

"When a is used -with numbers greater than thousands, of must be ex- 
pressed ; as, a million of men. So, in some instances, a great many ; as, 
" A great many of those books are worthless." 

That hundred, thousand, fyc, are nouns is evident : they may be used in 
the plural number ; as, "Hundreds of men were slain in that battle." 

The word many is very often used by the old English writers, as a noun 
signifying company, retinue, Sj-c. Thus, " And eke with him cometh his 
meinie " [many.] Chaucer. 

Spenser applies the -word to three persons in the following passage : 
" This fair many were compeld at last." 

Shakspeare uses a many without great ; thus, 

" For yet a many of your horsemen peer 

And gallop o'er the field." Hen. v. A. 4. Sc. 5. 

Many is a noun in such expressions as the following : " The will of the 
many, and their interests must very often differ." Burke. 

A is used with a plural noun, when the adjective few intervenes ; as, a 
few books. 

This construction probably originated from an ellipsis. Anefew menye, 
a few menye, (that is, a small number or company,) are expressions used by 
ancient authors. When many came to be generally used as an adjective 
opposed in meaning to few, the two words sounded harshly together, and 
many, with the preposition following it, was dropped. In this manner, afeio 
many of the books was changed to a few books. 

A or an often comes between many and a singular noun ; as, 

" When the merry bells ring round, 
And the jocund rebecks sound 
To many a youth and many a maid 
Dancing in the checkered shade." Milton. 

Home Tooke considers a in such instances to be a corruption of of. Thus' 
many of maids, by corrupting the sound of of, as is frequently done, would 
become many a maids ; and a being mistaken for the article, the noun would 
afterwards be put in the singular. 

The is used with nouns of what num- In what case is a used with plural 

ber? nouns? 

A or an is used with nouns of what 
number? 



42 english grammar. 

Parsing Exercises. 

The words in italics are prepositions ; those in large capitals 
are transitive verbs, and those in small capitals are intransitive 
verbs. 

That boy RODE the wicked horse. A good man LOVES 
all men. Robert GOT some sour apples. William HAS 
five white marbles. Jonathan SHOT some fat birds. Dili- 
gent boys RECEIVE praise. The rose is the fairest of all 
flowers. This room is warmer than* that. John HAS the 
the warmest room ofdlL The sun is hotter than any fire is. 
These apples are sweeter than those. Bayardo is the swift- 
est horse of the three. 

To parse an adjective, 
Tell 1, What part of speech — and whyT 

2. If it is a qualifying adjective, the degree — and why? 

3. and Compare it ; 

4. To what noun it belongs ; 

5. Rule. 

To parse an article, 
Tell 1. Whether definite or indefinite — and why? 

2. To what noun it belongs ; 

3. Rule. 

Or, parse it as a limiting adjective. 

MODEL. 

" That boy rode the wicked horse." 
That, 
Is a limiting adjective — it limits the meaning of a noun ; it belongs to the 
noun boy. 

Rule. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 

Boy, 
Is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, in the nominative case — subject of the verb rode. 

Rule. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

How do you parse an adjective? How do you parse an article? 

* Than is a conjunction. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

The, 
Is the definite article — it refers to a particular object ; it belongs to the 
noun horse. [Better. — The is a limiting adjective — it limits the meaning of a 
noun ; it belongs to the noun horse.] 

Rule. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 

Wicked, 
Is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality belonging to an object ; 
in the positive degree — it simply expresses the quality ; pos. wicked, comp. 
more wicked, super, most wicked ; it belongs to the noun horse. 

Rule. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 

Horse, 
Is a noun, &c; in the objective case — the object of the transitive verb rode. 
Rule. The object of a transitive verb is put m the objective. 

" The rose is the fairest of all flowers." 
Fairest, 
Is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality which belongs to an object; 
in the superlative degree — the quality is represented as belonging to one of sev- 
eral objects in a higher degree than to any of the rest ; pos. fair, comp. fairer, 
sup. fairest ; it belongs to flower understood. 

Rule. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 

" This room is warmer than that." 
Warmer, 
Is a qualifying adjective, &C; in the comparative degree — the quality is 
represented as belonging to one of two objects in a higher degree than to the 
other, &c; it belongs to the noun room. 

Rule. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 



Pronoun. 

A pronoun is a word which is used instead of 
a noun. 

Illustration. John told Sarah that John would let Sarah 
have John's book, if Sarah wished to study Sarah's lesson. 

John told Sarah that he would let her have his book, if she 
wished to study her lesson. 



What is a pronoun ' 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the latter sentence he and his, and she and her are pro- 
nouns, standing for John and John's, Sarah and Sarah's in the 
former. 

Pro Is a Latin word which signifies for, or instead of. Pronoun, then, 
means instead of a noun. 

Remark. Pronouns are not absolutely necessary for the communication of 
our thoughts : but language without them would be burdened with the repe- 
tition of nouns. 

Properly speaking, pronouns stand not merely for the nouns, but for the 
nouns with all the qualifying -words. Thus, " The venerable old man treated 
us so kindly, that we were forced to love him." Here him prevents the repe- 
tition, not of man merely, but of the venerable old man. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, instead of the pronouns put 
the nouns for which they stand. 

The gardener found his charmed fan to be the very thing 
which he desired. He had now no labor to perform ; a few 
sweeps of his fan brought him as many flowers as he needed. 
He therefore spent his time in luxurious indolence. 

Man was created out of the dust of the earth ; and, when 
he rose from the ground, he saw plants every where around 
him. The rearing of them became his first care, their fruit 
his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge. 

2. In the following put pronouns where they can be used 
instead of the nouns. 

The news of the Sultan's return being spread, the cour- 
tiers came betimes in the morning before the Sultan's pavilion 
to wait the Sultan's pleasure. The Sultan ordered the cour- 
tiers to enter, received the courtiers with a more pleasant air 
than the Sultan had formerly done, and gave each of the cour- 
tiers a present. 

Remarks. 

To avoid the repetition of nouns is not the only office of pronouns. I is a 
word used by the person speaking, to designate himself, but does not stand 
for his name, or imply any previous mention of himself. 

Are pronouns necessary to the communication of thought ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

So thou or you is used to designate the person addressed ; and we use it 
whether we know the name of the individual or not. 

I is equivalent to "the speaker;" and thou or you to "the person addressed" 

We, the plural of /, is used when the speaker includes others with him- 
self, or when several are joined in speaking or writing. 

Kings, as a mark of pre-eminence, use we instead of /• We is also used 
instead of / by editors of periodical publications, and often by public speakers 
and others, to avoid the appearance of egotism, and for other reasons. 

EXERCISES. 

Put pronouns, where they are admissible, in the following 
sentences. 

The speaker will love the person addressed. If the per- 
son addressed command, the speaker will obey. The speaker 
knows that the person addressed did as well as the person 
addressed could do. 

Instead of the pronouns in the following sentences use their 
equivalents. 

I wished you to do well. You said you loved me. How 
shall I believe you ? 

Note- Though I and "the speaker" convey the same idea, yet their con-v 
struction is not the same. / takes a verb of the first person, and " the speaker'''' 
takes one of the third, as all nouns do. A similar remark may be made with 
respect to thou, and " the person addressed." 

Remarks. 

1. He, she, and it refer to persons or things spoken of, and generally 
imply some previous mention of the objects referred to ; as, 

" Charles studies, and he will learn;" " Susan is a good girl, and she will 
be loved ;" " John saw the deer, and shot it.'" 

2. But these pronouns do not always imply a previous mention of the 
objects. In the following sentences, he stands for the man, or something 
equivalent, and she for the woman. 

" He, who is just, will be rewarded." 
" She, who is virtuous, will be respected." 

The plural they is often used in an indefinite sense referring to men in 
general ; as, " They say that the earth is spherical ;" that is, men say. 

To -what is I equivalent?— thou? Do they always imply a previous men- 

When is we used? tion of the objects 1 

To what do he, she, and it refer? 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

For what do he, she, and they stand in the following sen- 
fences ? 

He, that~trusteth in riches, shall fall. He, that is of a per- 
verse heart, shall be despised. She, that is industrious, will 
improve. They say, this man is honest. 

Personal Pronouns. 
The pronouns 2, thou, he, she, and it, in their 
various cases and numbers, are called personal pro- 
nouns ; because I is always of the first person, 
thou of the second, and he, she, and it of the third. 
They are thus declined. . 

First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. I, We, 

Poss. my, or mine, our, or ours*, 

Obj. me. us. 

Second Person. 

Norn. Thou, Ye, or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, your, or yours, 

Obj. thee. you. 
Third Person. Masculine. 

Norn. Pie, They, 

Poss. his, their, or theirs, 

Obj. him. them. 

Feminine. 

Norn. She, they, 

Poss. her, or hers, their, or theirs, 

Obj. her. them. 

Neuter. 

Norn. It, They, 

Poss. its, their, or theirs, 

Obj. it. them. 

What words are called personal pro- Decline I—thou—hc—she—it. 
nouns 1 Why are they so called? 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

Remarks. 

1. Where there are two forms of the possessive case, one of them is 
used when the name of the thing possessed is expressed ; the other when it 
is omitted. 

Thus, " That is your book, hut this is mine;" " This is my book, but that 
is yours." 

Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, or silent h; as, " Blot 
out all mine iniquities." They are still so used in the solemn style. 

2. These words, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are by some said 
to stand both for. the names of the possessor, and of the thing possessed. This 
is not correct. The name of the thing possessed is omitted, because it has 
been previously expressed. The nature of the pronoun may be understood 
by patting a noun in its place. Thus, "-This is my book, but that is John's." 
It would be as correct to say that John's, in this sentence, stands for both 
John's and book, as to say that yours, in the preceding paragraph, stands for 
both your and book. 

3. The s seems to have been added to our, your, their, and her, to give 
them the termination of the possessive case. The ear is more easily recon- 
ciled to the absence of the possessive termination when the pronoun is placed 
before the name of the thing possessed, than when it is not. His and its have 
the possessive termination, and the omission of the noun makes no change in 
their form. 

4. In the third person there is a different pronoun for each gender in the 
'"singular number ; but in the first and second the same pronouns are used, 

whatever may be the gender. The sex of the speaker and the person address- 
ed is supposed to be known from their being present, and from other circum- 
stances. 

5. Originally, thou was the only pronoun used in addressing a single per- 
son ; bat, from flattery, or politeness, you began to be used in such cases ; 
and it has now entirely usurped the "place oithou, except in the solemn style. 
The Friends, or Quakers, still use thou in common discourse. See note on We. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

When self, (plur. selves,) is added to the per- 
sonal pronouns, they are called compound personal 
pronouns. 

These pronouns are used for the sake of emphasis or 

How are the two forms of the posses- gender in pronouns of the first and se- 
sive case used? cond persons 1 

Why is there no distihct form for each What are compound personal prc- 

noans? 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

distinction ; or when an action is represented as exerted 
upon the agent ; as, "I my self did it ;" " He killed himself." 

They have no possessive case, and the objective is the 
same as the nominative. 

In those of the first and second persons, self and selves are added to the 
possessive case of the simple pronouns ; in those of the third person self and 
selves are added to the objective case. 

Thus, myself, ourselves ; thyself, yourselves ; himself herself, itself, 
themselves. 

Her is in either the possessive or objective, but for the sake of uniformity 
I have considered it as the objective. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following. 
I hurt meself. Thou lovest theeself. You love youself. 
He killed hisself. They ruined theirselves. It injured 
itsself. 

Remarks. 

1. Self is supposed to have been originally an adjective. It was joined 
by the Anglo-Saxons to nouns and pronouns in every case. Thus, they said 
what would be equivalent to Iself, myself, meself; except that self had a par- 
ticular termination for each case, as other adjectives had. The old English 
writers use it as an adjective ; thus, Chaucer says, " The self day," that is, 
the same day ; and Shakspeare, " One self king." It afterwards came to be 
used as a noun ; as, '-'Oft whip her dainty self." Spenser. 

2. It is from its having been used as an adjective, that it is joined to the 
objective case ; and it is used as a noun when joined to the possessive. 

3. It is from its being used as a noun, that, when an adjective comes 
between the pronoun and self, the possessive case of the noun is used ; as, 
his own self. 

4. For the same reason, -when the plural form of the first and. second 
persons is used for the singular, self remains in the singular ; as, " John, you 
injure yoursetf." 

"■ Madam, we will ourself take time to hear." Daniel. 
" Ourself will swiftness to your nerves impart." Pope. 

5 These pronouns are seldom used in the nominative case, except when 
annexed to the simple pronouns. 



How are they used? To what cases of the simple pronouns 

How many cases have they? are the terms self and selves added? 



etymology. 49 

Relative Pronouns. 
Who, which, what, and that are called relative 
pronouns, when they relate to some word or 
phrase going before, called the antecedent;* as, 
" The boy, who studies, will learn." 
In this sentence who relates to boy, as its antecedent. 
Remarks. 

1. Other pronouns have antecedents ; thus, " The boy studies, and will 
learn." In this sentence he relates to the word boy, which is its antecedent. 

2. The name connective pronoun would better express the nature of these 
words. The relative not only stands in the place of the noun, bat closely 
connects the clause in which it stands to the antecedent. In this example, 
" The boy, who studies, will learn," the relative clause toho studies is closely 
connected with the antecedent boy, and modifies it like an adjective. Who 
studies is equivalent to studious. 

3. Who is applied to persons ; as, " This is the man 
who came ;" " She, who is amiable, will be loved." 

4. Which is applied to the lower animals, and to inani- 
mate things ; as, " This is the ox which destroyed the corn;" 
" This is the tree which bears the best fruit." 

5. That is applied to any thing to which either who or 
which may be applied.; as, "This is the man that came ;" 
" She, that is amiable, will be loved ;" " This is the ox that 
destroyed the corn ;" " This is the tree that bears the best 
fruit." ~~ 

6. What is applied to things, and is used only when the 
antecedent is omitted ; as, " He got what he wanted," that 
is, the thing which he wanted. 

7. That is a relative, when who, which, or whom may be 
substituted for it. 

What words are called relative pro- How is what used? 

nouns? When is that a relative? 

To what is who applied? — which? — 
that ? 

* Antecedent means going before. 



50 ENGLISH (mAMMAR. 

Thus, "He, that studies, will learn;" " Every thing, that has life, is an ani- 
mal ;" " This is the man that I saw." Who may be substituted for that in 
the first example, which in the second, and whom in the third. 

EXERCISES. 
In which of the following sentences is that a relative? 
He, that acts wisely, deserves praise. It is said that Solo- 
mon was a wise man. I know that man. They, that are 
whole, need not a physician, but they that are sick. Bless 
them that curse you. This is the house that Jack built. 
That tree is decaying. This is the tree that is decaying. 
He says that that tree is decaying. 

Declension of the Relatives. 

What and that are used in the nominative and objective 
cases. They have no possessive. 

Who and which are thus declined. 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Norn. Who, Which, 

Poss. whose, whose,* 

Obj. whom. which. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the relatives and antecedents in the following sentences. 

A king, who is just, makes his people happy. This is the 
man whom we met. This is the man that we met. All are 
pleased with children that behave well. This is the tiger 
that, broke from his cage. This is a beautiful dog that you 
have. The books, which I gave him, are for you. God, by 
whose kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all 
things, is eternal. Alexander, who conquered the world, was 
conquered by his passions. He, that does not make happy, 
deserves not to be happy. This is the dog, that bit the cat, 

In what cases are what andthat used? Decline the relative pronouns. 

* Instead of the possessive case whose the objective, with the preposition of is very 
frequently used. Instead of " A religion whose origin is divine," we may say, " A 
religion the origin of which is divine;" though this form of expression is often very 
awkward. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

that caught the rat, that eat the malt, that lay in the house, 
that Jack built. He, who steals my purse, steals trash. The 
person, who does no good, does harm. 

N 

Antecedent Omitted. 

The antecedent is somtimes omitted, as, " Who steals my 
purse, steals trash; " that is, he who, or the person who. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the antecedents to the following relatives. 

Who does no good, does harm. Whom the Lord loveth ? 

he chasteneth. Whom God wishes to destroy, he first makes 

mad. Whom he will, he hardeneth- There are, who put 

their trust in riches. Who worship God, shall find him. 

This day have I begotten, whom I declare 
My only Son. 

And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order, sins against the Eternal Cause. 

The relative what is never used except when the antece- 
dent is omitted; which is used when it is expressed. There- 
fore, if we omit the antecedent we must use what instead of 
which ; and if the antecedent is restored to its place, which 
must follow it, and not what. 

Thus, " I saw what I wanted to see. " Here the antecedent to what is 
thing understood; if we express the antecedent thing, which will take the 
place oiwhat \ as, " I saw the thing which I wanted to see." 

Remarks. 

"Various opinions, have been entertained about the nature of the relative 
tvhat. It is «aid to be " a compound relative pronoun, including both the 
antecedent and ike relative, and is equivalent to that xvhich, or the thing 
which" Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examination, 
that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else. 
Compare these two sentences: 

" I saw whom I wanted to see ;" 

" I saw what I wanted to see." 



Is the antecedent always expressed? -what relative is used instead of what? 
What relative is never used, except When persons are referred to, does 

when the antecedent is omitted 1 ? the omission of the antecedent cause a 

When the antecedent is expressed, different pronoun to be used? 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If what in the latter is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, wlwm 
in the former is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom ; and who, in 
this sentence," Who steals my purse, steals trash," is equivalent to he who, or 
the man who. 

And, on the same principle, -when the relative is omitted the antecedent 
should be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. Thus, 
" I saw the man I wanted to see." Here man should be represented as equi- 
valent to man whom. 

The cause of the error in respect to what is that the antecedent is never 
expressed -with it. It is like the word who, which is used both when the 
antecedent is expressed, and when it is omitted. The relative that, however, 
was formerly used in many cases where we use what, that is, with the ante- 
cedent omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain the nature 
of what. 

" "We speak that we do know." Bible. 

" I am that I am." English Bible. 



" Who hath been seen imagine mote thereby 

That whylome of Hercules hath been told." Spenser. 

" Eschewe that wicked is." Gower. 

" Is it possible he should know what he is, and be that he is? Shakspeare. 
" Gather the sequel by that went before." Shakspeare. 

In these examples that is a relative ; and is exactly synonymous with 
No one would contend that that stands for itself and its antecedent at 
the same time. The antecedent is omitted, because it is indefinite, or easily 
supplied. 

Some consider that, in such sentences as these, an adjective, (demonstra- 
tive adjective pronoun,) and say that the relative is understood ; but if we 
examine carefully we shall see that this is not correct. In the first quotation 
from the English Bible, that is a translation of the Greek relative, and in the 
second it is a translation of the Hebrew relative. 

It is no objection to this view that the antecedent cannot be expressed 
before what. The pronouns ours, yours, fyc, cannot be employed -when the 
noun is expressed. The relative that may be governed by a preposition 
coming after it ; but if the preposition should come first, that must be changed 
into whom or which. It will not be contended that that is not governed by 
the preposition because it -will not admit the preposition before it. 

In the Anglo-Saxon language the neuter gender of tooa (who) was not 
hwile (which,) but ivhae (what;) and the genitive and dative cases, tchaes and 
wham were the same in all the genders. This shows that what originally had 
the same relation to nouns of the neuter gender that who had to those of the 
masculine. 

The Germans use was (what) in many instances where we use which, or 
that; '•' Ahes, toas ich sah, gefiel mir," (AH, what I saw, pleased me.) 



etymology. 53 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

When ever y or soever is annexed to relative pronouns, they 
are called compound relative pronouns* 

They are used only when the antecedent is omitted on 
account of its being indefinite ; and in such cases they are 
more commonly used than the simple pronoun. 

Thus, " Whoever steals my parse steals trash ;" " Whoever does no good 
does harm ;" " Whatever purines fortifies the heart." In the first two exam- 
ples the antecedent is person, or something equivalent ; in the last it is thing. 

Remarks. 

These words, like the relative what, have been said to he " equivalent to 
the relative and the antecedent." The same answer may be made here as in 
the case of what. The antecedent is omitted, and not included in the relative. 

These words are compound relatives, it is true ; but they are not com- 
pounded of the relative and the antecedent, but of the relative and the adverb 
ever. This adverb primarily refers to time, bat also means in any degree, 
and is sometimes used as " a word of enforcement or emphasis ;" as, " He 
studies as much as ever he can." In composition with the relative it is gene- 
rally " a word of enforcement or emphasis." 

Thus, " Whoever sins will suffer." This means that any one without 
exception who sins will suffer." 

The adverb has no influence on the nature of the relative. It was an- 
ciently written separately. 

The impropriety of considering the compound relative equivalent to the 
antecedent and the relative may be seen from such sentences as the follow- 
ing. " I love whoever loves me." Here whoever is in the nominative case, 
and, of course, cannot be the object of the verb love. The object of that verb 
is omitted, because it is indefinite.* 

What are compound relative pronouns? Of what are they compounded? 
How are they used? — 

* Whomsoever in the following quotations should be whosoever. 

" As may be learned by whomsoever will take the trouble to consult our old church 
records " O. A. Brownson. 

"Yet three fourths of his life was employed in helping whomsoever had need of 
his purse, of his talents, of his management." Carlyle. 

In the first quotation the relative is not the object of the preposition by, but the 
nominative to the verb will take. The relative in the second quotation is nomina- 
tive to the verb had, and not the object of helping. 

In the following the nominative case of the relative is properly used. 

" And twenty curses on whosoever had brought him thither." Jarvis's Translation 
of Don Quixote. 

" The Gaul, with superior magnanimity, offered his own head to whoever should 
bring him that of Nero." Murphy's Tacitus. 

" Harbours and bays are admitted to belong to whoever has dominion over the 
neighboring land." Lieher. 

" They punished with the severest tortures whoever dared to secrete any part of 
the consecrated offering." Hume. 

" With whosoe'er of all the invading host 

Relies upon his sword, his prowess, moet." Hunt's Tasqo. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The antecedent was sometimes expressed by the old writers. Thus, 
" No man knoweth the Father save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son 
will reveal him." English Bible. * 

" Blessed is he whosoever shall not he offended in me." 

" And thither also came all other creatures, 
Whatever life or motion do retaine." Spenser. 

2. Formerly so was sometimes used instead of ever or soever; as, " Whoso 
findeth me findeth life." English Bible. 

3. The antecedent is sometimes repeated with the relative ; as, " John 
has a beautiful knife, which knife was given him by his father." Which is 
here a limiting adjective belonging to knife. 

4. What and whatever are sometimes joined to nouns as limiting adjec- 
tives : the same nouns are then understood as antecedents. 

Thus, " What books he has are of the best kind." Here what is joined as 
a limiting adjective to books, which is the object of the verb has ; books un- 
derstood is the antecedent and the subject of the verb are. 

5. What and tvhatever are joined as adjectives to nouns denoting per- 
sons, instead oitoho and whoever, which are never used as adjectives. Thus, 

" What man but enters dies." 
" Heaven bestows its gifts on whatever man will use them.*' 
The subject of dies in the first example is the antecedent man understood: 
the object of the preposition on in the second is the antecedent man under- 
stood. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are 
sometimes called interrogative pronouns. 

Thus, " Who is here?" " Which book will you have?" " What do you see?" 
Which and what in interrogations may always be considered as limiting 
adjectives belonging to a noun expressed or understood. In the last exam- 
ple, thing is understood. Who is equivalent to what person. 

These words are often used in dependent clauses when there is no direct 
question ; as, " Tell me who is here ;" " I know who is here ;" " He asked 
what I saw ;" " Teach me what is truth ;" " Tell me in which house you live." 

In some of these examples a question is asked indirectly; all of them have 
some reference to a question. In such cases the se words are called indefinite 
pronouns. The object of the verb in the independent clause is the whole of 
the dependent clause. 

Thus, the object of tell in the first example is the whole of the clause who 
is here. 

Remark. It is improper to consider these words as relative pronouns. 
" I know the man who is here;" conveys an entirely different idea from 

What words are sometimes called in- What are these words called' .in indi- 
terrogative pronouns? rect questions? 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

" I know who is here." " Teach me what is truth, and what is falsehood ' 
is an indirect way of asking " What is truth, and* what is falsehood?" It 
is not equivalent to " Teach me that which is truth, and that which is false- 
hood," which would be nonsense. 

EXERCISES. 

In which of the following sentences are who, which, and what 
relatives ; in which are they interrogatives ; and in which in- 
definites ? 

You know not who I am. In what house do you live ? 
Tell me in what house you live. Tell me in whose house 
do you live. O Diamond, you know not what mischief you 
have done ! Whom did you see ? I will not tell whom I 
saw. I saw whom I wanted to see. In what character was he 
admitted ? In what character he was admitted is unknown.* 
I will not ask who you are. He was unwilling to declare to 
what place he was going. To what place he was going is 
not known. 

One, As, and Other. 

One is sometimes used in an indefinite sense, referring to mankind at 
large ; as, " One should pity the afflicted." In such phrases one may be con 
sidered as a pronoun, used instead of person, or some equivalent -word. 

In the following examples it stands instead of a repetition of some noun 
which precedes it. " He took the. old bird and left the young ones;" " He ad- 
mired virtuous statesmen, but despised corrupt ones." 

It is sometimes used instead of person, or something equivalent ; as, " The 
forsaken one ;" " The loved ones ;" " Any one ;" " Many a one." __ 

As is sometimes used as a relative pronoun ; as, " He associates with such 
persons as please him ;" " He wants as many books as he can get." 

Some suppose an ellipsis in such cases ; thus, " He wants such books as 
those which he can get."t 

When the noun to which the limiting adjective other belongs is omitted, 

For what does one stand in such senten- Give an example in which as is used 
ces as, " One should pity the afflicted?" as a relative pronoun. 
— in such sentences as, " He took the old What is said of other ? 
bird, and left the young ones?" — in such 
expressions as, " The forsaken one?", 
I 

* The subject of is is the whole clause, in what character he was admitted. 

tA similar construction often occurs with than; as, " He wants more than he 
can get." 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and would have been in the possessive case or plural number, the termination 
of the noun is added to other; as, " Regard the rights of others," that is, other 
persons. 

Formerly other was used even when a plural noun was omitted ; as 
" Those other which I have in hand." Bacon. " That he awaken when the 
other do." Shakspeare. Other adjectives were sometimes used in the same 
way that other is : as, 

" And left the earth to be the wicked's den." Bacon. 

" The rich man's joys increase the poor's decay. Goldsmith. 

Another is properly two words, an, and other. 

One another and each other are used in a reciprocal sense ; as, " They 
loved one another ;" " They loved each other." One another and each other 
may be considered as in the objective case after the verb loved ; but in reality 
one and each, or the nouns to which they belong, are in the nominative to 
loved understood, and other in the objective case to the same verb. Thus, 
" They loved, each loved the other ;" or with the nouns expressed, " They 
loved, each person loved the other person." 

EXERCISES. 

Form three sentences containing personal pronouns — three 
containing compound personal pronouns — three containing rel- 
ative pronouns — three containing relative pronouns with the 
antecedents omitted — three containing compound relative pro- 
nouns — three containing interrogative pronouns. 

To parse a pronoun, 

Tell 1. What part of speech it is — and why? 

2. What kind of pronoun — and why? 

3. Number — and why? 

4. Gender — and why? 

5. Person — and why? 

6. Rule for number, gender and person ; 

7. Case — and why? 

8. Rule for case ; 

9. Decline it. 



What is said of another? — of one another, How do you parse a pronoun? 
and each other? 



etymology. 57 

Parsing Exercises. 

The words in large capitals are transitive verbs ; those in 
small capitals are intransitive verbs, and those in italics are 
prepositions. 

John SAW his sister, and * she ran to him. That book 
belongs to me. Thou KNOWEST thyself. Jane SPOILS 
her beauty. The bird SPREADS its wings. The snake 
SWALLOWED itself. Edward KNEW the man who 
STRUCK him. That foolish boy BIT the dog that BIT 
him. The two boys spoke to the man whom they MET, 
and he spoke to them. Charles TOOK my book, and 
LEFT yours. 

I SAW the boy, whose dog CHASED the cat. The man 
FOUND what he WANTED. George WILL DO what is 
right. I HEARD what the preacher SAID. You RE- 
QUIRE what no man CAN PERFORM. He DID what 
was necessary. Sarah CHOSE what was most becoming. 

Whoever studies, will become learned. The good boy 
AVOIDS whatever HURTS another. I LOVE whoever 
LOVES me. 

What DID you EAT for breakfast? Whose horse ran 
down the hill? Which of the two horses is the swiftest? 

MODEL. 

" John saw his sister, and she ran to him." 
His, 
Is a pronoun — it is used instead of the noun John's^ personal — it is always 
of the third person ; of the singular number, masculine gender, third person, 
because the antecedent John is. 

Rule. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and 
person. 

* And is a conjunction. 

t It is not correct to say that his is used instead of John. The pronoun is used 
instead of some case of the antecedent noun— whatever case the construction of 
the sentence demands. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is in the possessive case, and placed before the noun sister. 

Rule. The possessive case is placed before the name of the object pos- 



Sing. Nom. he, Poss. his. Obj. him. Plur. Nom. they, Poss. their or 
theirs, Obj. them. 

She, * 

Is a pronoun — it stands for the noun sister; personal — it is always of the 
third person ; of the singular number, feminine gender, third person, because 
the antecedent sister is. Rule. Pronouns agree, fyc. In the nominative 
case — subject of the verb ran. 

Rule. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

Nom. She, fyc. 

" That book belongs to me." 
Me, 
Is a pronoun — it is used instead of a noun ; personal — it is always of the 
first person ; singular number — it denotes but one object ; the gender is un- 
known; objective case — the object of the preposition to. 
Rjle. Prepositions are followed by the objective case. 
Nom. I, Poss. my or mine, Obj. me, fyc. 

" Edward knew the man who struck him." 
Who, 

Is a pronoun — it is used instead of a noun ; relative — it relates to its ante- 
cedent man ; singular number, masculine gender, third person, because the 
antecedent man is. 

Rule. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and 
person. 

It is in the nominative case — subject of the verb struck. 

Rule. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

Nom. who. Poss. whose, Obj. whom. [Plural the same.] 

" The man found what he wanted." 
What, 
Is a pronoun — it is used instead of a noun ; relative — it relates to its ante- 
cedent thing understood ; singular number, &c. 

. It is in the objective case — the object of the transitive verb wanted. 
Rule. The object of a transitive verb is put in the objective case. 

" Whoever studies will become learned." 
Whoever, 
Is a pronoun — it is used instead of a noun ; compound relative — it is com- 
pounded of who and ever, and relates to its antecedent person understood ; 
singular number, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

•' What did you eat for breakfast ?" 
What, 
Is a pronoun, &c. ; interrogative — it is used in asking a question ; singular 
zmmber, &c. 

Objective case — the object of the transitive verb did eat. 

Rule. The object of a transitive verb is put in the objective case. 



Verb. 

A verb is a word by which something is 
affirmed of a person or thing; as, 

"John runs;" " Csesar was killed;" "James will study." 

The person or thing of which any thing is 
affirmed is called the subject. In the preceding 
examples John, Ccesar, and James are the subjects. 

The affirmation may be absolute ; as, " I walk •" or it may- 
be expressed in the form of a condition ; as, " U I should 
walk ; " or of a question ; as, " Does he walk 1" or of a 
command ; as, " John, sit down ;" or of a wish ; as, " May 
you prosper." 

The infinitive mood is the noun form of the verb, as the 
participle is the adjective form. An affirmation ^cannot be 
made by means of either. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the verbs and subjects in the following sentences. 

John walks. William reads. The horse gallops. The 
sun shines. Peter hopped. Pompey was defeated. James 
will learn. The horse will gallop. 

Brutus killed Csesar. Caesar defeated Pompey. James 

What is a verb? Mention some of the ways in which the 

What is the subject of a verb? affirmation may be expressed. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

will learn his lesson. John walks every day. William reads 
amusing books. The horse gallops through the wood. The 
sun shines brightly. You should study. You should study 
diligently. James should study his lesson diligently. Joseph 
has come. Joseph has not come. Joseph has not come 
home. There was rain. Hence arise wars and convulsions. 
Does wealth make men happy 1 

Put verbs instead of the j olio wing dashes. 

John — his work. George — a letter. The horse — . 
The traveler — a treasure. This story — beautiful We — 
happy. Peter — an apostle. A b-ad boy — his parents. 
William — a rabbit. Ann — stockings. Joseph — houses. 
A good man — in that house. God — just. The horse — 
fast. Irene — on a chair. Benjamin — on a bed. 

Classes of Verbs. 

Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 

A transitive verb requires the addition of an 
object to complete the sense ; as, " John strikes 
George ;" " He excels me." 

An intransitive verb does not require the addi- 
tion of an object to complete the sense ; as, " The 
horse runs;" " Peter sleeps;" " Mary is good." 

Remarks. 

1. The word transitive means passing over; and verbs of this class are 
so called, because the action is represented as passing over from the subject 
to the object. 

2. As the object is in the objective case, any verb which makes sense 
with me, thee, him, her, us, or them is a transitive verb. 

Thus, we may know that strikes is a transitive by its making sense with 
him after it; as, " John strikes him ;" but "John sleeps him" would not 
make sense. 

Into how many classes are verbs di- Why are transitive verbs so called? 
vided? What is a transitive verb ?— an How mav a transitive verb be known ? 
intransitive ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

3. The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in 
another ; thus, in the sentence, " He believes my story, " believes is transitive ; 
but in this phrase, " He believes in God," it is intransitive. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell which verbs are transitive, and which intransitive, in the 
following sentences, and name the object of each of the transi- 
tive verbs. 

Benjamin jumped over the fence. The horse kicked the 
cow. Brutus killed Csesar. Romulus slew Remus. Scipio 
conquered Hannibal. Mummius destroyed Corinth. Wash- 
ington commanded the army. Birds fly in the air. Susan 
smiled. 

I saw him. God is just. The good man loves his fellow- 
men. I have a book. William runs fast. Augustus heard 
Lucinda. 

Form three sentences containing transitive verbs — three con- 
taining intransitive verbs. 

With respect to form, verbs are regular or 
irregular. 

A verb is regular when the past (or imperfect) 
tense and the perfect participle are formed by add- 
ing d or ed to the present ; as, 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Trust, trusted, trustee! ; 

Hope, hoped, hoped. 

A verb is irregular when it is formed some 
other way. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle; 

Write, wrote, written ; 

Do, did, done. 

A defective verb is one which is remarkable for 
wanting some of its parts. 

When is a verb regular?— when irregular ? What is a defective verb? 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

An auxiliary verb is one which is used in con- 
jugating other verbs. 

Voices. 

Transitive verbs have two forms, usually called 
the active and passive voices. 

When the active voice is used, the agent is 
represented as acting upon the object ; as, " Brutus 
killed Csesar." 

When the passive is used, the object is repre- 
sented as being acted upon by the agent; as, 
" Caesar was killed by Brutus." 

Remark 1. These two expressions convey the same idea ; but in the for- 
mer the attention is directed to Brutus as performing the action, in the latter 
to Caesar as affected by the action. In the former the subject Brutus is active. 
in the latter the subject Caesar is ■ 



Remark 2. The word passive is derived from a Latin word which means 
to suffer; and the name is given to this form, because the subject is repre- 
sented as suffering or undergoing the action. 

Any sentence containing a transitive verb in the active 
form may be so altered as to convey the same sense with the 
verb in the passive form. 

That which is the object in the active becomes the sub- 
ject in the passive ; and the subject of the active is put in 
the objective case, after the preposition by. Thus, " The dog 
bit the cat " may be changed into " The cat was bitten by 
the dog." 



What is an auxiliary verb? When the active voice is changed into 

How many voices have transitive verbs'? the passive, what is done with the sub- 
Define the active voice — the passive. ject and object of the active verb? 
How may a sentence containing a tran- 
sitive verb be altered? 



ETYMOLOGY. (53 

EXERCISES. 
Change the following sentences so as to convey the same mean- 
ing with the verb in the passive. 

The buy reads the book. We praise virtue. He cuts 
the wood. The wind shakes the tree. She sees a house. 
We hear a noise. Anthony loved Cleopatra. Washington 
defeated Cornwallis. Virtue produces happiness. Nero 
burned Rome. Men should read the bible. 

Remark. 

1. In the active the object may be omitted; thus, we may say, " Peter 
reads," without affirming -whether he reads a book, a newspaper or a letter. 
In the passive the name of the agent may be omitted ; thus, we may say, 
': The book is read," without declaring by whom. 

2. It is convenient to use this form when we do not know, or when we 
know and do not wish to name, the agent ; as, "My pen has been spoiled." 
The same idea, however, may be represented, though not so well, by the 
active ; as, "Somebody has spoiled my pen." 

3. The passive is sometimes used merely to give variety, when the active 
would express the meaning as well. 

4. An intransitive verb cannot be used in the passive form, since it has 
no object in the active to become the subject of the passive. But intransitive 
verbs followed by prepositions are sometimes used in the passive, the object 
of the preposition becoming the subject of the passive. 

Thus, to smile is intransitive, and we cannot say, " He was smiled by 
her ;" but we may say, " She smiled on him ;" " He was smiled on by her." 

5. Some would call on an adverb in the passive form, but not correctly ; 
was smiled on should be considered a compound vei'b, for the passive is used 
only because smiled on in the active is treated as a transitive verb. In pars- 
ing the active, however, we should parse the words as iheyHre — smiled as 
an intransitive verb, and on as a preposition. 

6. Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by the objective case of a 
noun of kindred signification to their own, and this objective may be the sub- 
ject of the passive ; as, " John ran a race ; " A race was run by John." 

To verbs, besides voices, belong moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 



Can the object of a transitive verb be "When do intransitive verbs have an 

omitted? objective case ? 

Can an intransitive verb be used in the What belong to verbs? \ 
passive voice? Why not? 



64 english grammar. 

Moods. 

Moods are different manners of expressing the 
action or state. 

There are five moods — the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the potential, the imperative, and the 
infinitive. 

The indicative mood simply declares a thing ; 
as, " I run;" " John wrote a letter." 

The subjunctive mood represents the action or 
state as doubtful, or contingent; as, " He will 
escape punishment, if he repent!' 

The potential mood asserts the power, liberty, 
possibility, necessity, or duty of performing an 
action, or being in a state ; as, " I can run;" " You 
may rest;" " John may learn, perhaps ;" " He must 
study." 

The imperative mood is used in commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, " Study 
your lesson ;" " Obey your parents ;" " Save my 
child;" "Go in peace." 

The infinitive mood expresses the action or 
state without limiting it to any person or thing 
as its subject; as, "To play is pleasant." 

Remark 1. The subjunctive mood is so called because it is used in a 
clause which is subjoined to another clause. It is usually connected with 
the leading clause by a conjunction ; such as, if, that, unless, though, lest. 



What are moods? Define the imperative— the infinitive. 

How many moods? Why is the subjunctive mood so cal- 

Define the indicative— the subjunctive led ? 
—the potential. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

The conjunction is sometimes omitted ; as, " Were he poor, he would he hap- 
pier," that is, if he were poor. 

The indicative and potential moods may also he used in subjoined clauses ; 
as, " He will escape punishment, if he should repent;" " He is respected, 
though he is poor." The subjoined clause may come first ; as, " If he repent, 
he will escape punishment." 

Remark 2. The potential mood may be known by the signs may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should. 

Remark 3. Both the indicative and the potential may be used in asking 
questions ; as. " Have you a knife?" " May I got" 

Remark 4. The potential is sometimes used to express a -wish ; as, " May 
you prosper !" 

Remark 5. The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to prefixed; 
as, to love; to learn. The infinitive partakes of the nature of the verb and of 
the noun, as the participle partakes of the nature of the verb and of the 
adjective. 

Remark 6. The sign to is by some called a preposition, but it resembles the 
preposition to in nothing but form ; it has none of the properties of a preposi- 
tion ; it shows no relation between words. In the sentence " To play is pleas- 
ant," to cannot be said to denote a relation between play and any other word. 
To with the infinitive in English answers the same purpose that peculiar ter- 
minations do in other languages. The infinitive may be the object of a prepo- 
sition ; as, " He is about to go." Other prepositions were formerly used 
before this mood ; as, " What went ye out for to see?" Bible. " And each 
the other from to rise restrained." Spenser. In these examples to go, to see, 
to rise are governed by prepositions as single words. The infinitive may be 
the object of a transitive verb; as, "John loves to read." What does John 
love? To read. This infinitive is the object of the transitive verb loves, 
and if to is a preposition, a preposition may come between a transitive vei-b 
and its object. 

Home Tooke says that to has the same origin as do, and is indeed the 
same word. " The verbs in English not being distinguished, as in other lan- 
guages, by a peculiar termination, and it being sometimes impossible to dis- 
tinguish them by their place, when the old termination of Tne Anglo-Saxon 
verbs was dropped, this word to (i. e. act) became necessary to be prefixed, 
in order to distinguish them from nouns, and to invest them with the verbal 
character ; for there is no difference between the noun, love, and the verb, 
to love, but what must be comprised in the prefix to." Diversions of Purley. 
Vol i. 286. " And for the same reason that to is put before the infinitive, do 
used formerly to be put before such other parts of the verb which likewise 
were not distinguished from the noun by termination. As we still say, I do 
love, instead of I love. And / doed or did love, instead of / loved." Ibid. 291. 
Thus it seems that Home Tooke considers to an auxiliary verb. 



How may the potential mood be What mood is sometimes used to ex- 
known? press a wish? 

What moods are used in asking ques- How may the infinitive be usually 

tions 1 known? 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note on the Moods. 

I have followed the common arrangement of the moods, without being 
satisfied with it. There seems to be no sufficient foundation for either the sub- 
junctive, or the potential. Neither of these moods seem to be defined by dis- 
tinct boundaries. 

" The subjunctive mood," says Murray, " represents a thing under a con- 
dition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded by a conjunction ex- 
pressed or understood, and attended by another verb." He, very correctly, 
we think, follows Dr. Lowth and " the most correct and elegant writers in 
limiting the conjunctive termination of the principal verb, to the second and 
third persons singular of the present tense* 

This definition includes forms which Mr. M. does not assign to this mood, 
and excludes some which he does. In the sentence," If he go, he will return," 
go is said to be in the subjunctive mood : precisely the same idea is expressed 
by " If he should go, he will return," and yet should go is placed in the poten- 
tial mood. The definition includes the whole of the potential mood when 
nsed after certain conjunctions, aud the presence of these conjunctions 
changes the indicative, the present excepted, into the subjunctive. The 
" conjunctive form " is used after some adverbs ; as, '-' Blow till thou burst 
thy 'wind." Skakspeare. " Until the day dawn, and the day-star arise in your 
hearts." Bible. " Ye do show the Lord's death till he come." Bible. " Till 
thou return." Watts. " Before it come to pass ;" " Before the cock crotch 
Bible. This " conjunctive form " in such cases, however, is excluded by the 
definition from the subjunctive mood.t 

Some of the expressions which Mr. Murray uses while discussing this 
subject -would lead us to suppose that he cousidered the conjunction a part of 
the verb in the subjunctive. " There appears to be as much propriety in giv- 
ing a conjunction the power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood, as 
there is in allowing the particle to to have an effect in the formation of the 
infinitive mood." But he does not carry out his principle: whenever to is used 
before a verb, there is always an infinitive, but Mr. M. does not say that if 
used before a verb always forms a subjunctive.^ 



* Such forms as if thou loved, if thou have loved, though sometimes used, " are not 
warranted by the general practice of correct writers." 

tMr. M. says, "The second and third persons, in both numbers, of the second 
future tense of all verbs, require a variation from the forms which those tenses 
have in the indicative mood." Thus, "He will have completed the work by mid- 
summer," is the indicative form; but the subjunctive is, ' If he shall have complet- 
ed the work by midsummer '" But this form is used not only after conjunctions, 
but after many adverbs, such as when, till, after, before, <£c; and even after relative 
pronouns; as, "When he shall have accomplished the work;" "He will pay even 
every one who shall have completed the work assigned him." 

$ Mr. Murray seems not to have understood correctly what is meant when it is 
said that conjunctions govern moods. If there were a distinct form for the subjunc- 
tive mood, then a conjunction might be said to govern the subjunctive, if it required 
that paiticular form to follow it; but Mr. M. represents the conjunction not as govern- 
ing, but as creating the subjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

The use of the " conjunctive form" is rendered perfectly intelligible, if 
we suppose an ellipsis of the auxiliary verb. We can then easily understand 
■why the "circumstances of contingency and futurity must concur," when 
this form is used — the conjunction expresses the contingency,* and the verb 
the futurity. We can also see why this form may be used after some ad- 
verbs. 

" I will respect him, though he chide me ;" that is, though he should chide. 

" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent ;" unless he shall repent. 

" That thou appear not unto men to fast ;" that thou may est appear. 

" Before the cock crow ;" shall crow. 

" Till the Lord come-" shall come. 

The full form and the elliptical are sometimes used together, as in the fol- 
lowing passage : " If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath, from doing 
thy pleasure on my holy day ; and call the sabbath a delight, the holy of the 
Lord, honorable, and shalt honor him, &c. Isaiah, lviii. 7. 

Here the verbs refer to the same time, aud yet Mr. Murray would place 
turn and call in the present tense, and shalt honor in the future. Those -who 
limit the subjunctive to the present and imperfect tenses, would assign turn 
and call to the present subjunctive, and shall honor to the future indicative — 
not only to different tenses, but to different moods, although there is no differ- 
ence either in contingency or time. 

The Potential. This mood seems to have no better foundation than the 
subjunctive. All the forms which are assigned to this mood consist of the 
indicative and infinitive of two verbs, the sign to of the infinitive being 
omitted. " I can write." Here " I can " is a positive affirmation of my abil- 
ity : no verb in the indicative expresses a more positive and absolute asser- 
tion. The omission of to before write is certainly not sufficient to justify us 
in forming a distinct mood ; if it were, we ought either to assign bid, feel, let, 
fyc, and the verbs joined with them, to this mood, or form another mood for 
them. 

The definition of the mood is taken from the meaning of the verbs, and 
the name is derived from the meaning of one of them. On the same princi- 
ple that can write is called the potential mood, love to write would be called 
the loving mood ; wish to write, the wishing or optative mood, &c. If we 
were to take, for instance, love to torite, wish to write, endeavor to write, 
intend to write, class them together in a distinct mood, and give this mood a 
name derived from the meaning of one of the verbs placed before the infini- 
tive, it would be carrying out the principle on which the potential is formed. 
This mood would be thus defined : " The optative mood implies love, desire, 
intention, or endeavor." 

The objection to the existence of this mood does not rest on the fact that 
auxiliaries are employed to form it. If may, can, fyc, were really employed 
as auxiliaries, the objection would not exist ; but it is because these words 



* So far as the veib is concerned, the subjunctive " declares " as much as the 
indicative ; it is the conjunction which expresses the contingency, 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

seem to have the characteristics of principal verhs, that we think there is no 
such mood as the potential.* 

I would propose a division having reference to the subject of the verb. 
There would then he three moods. 

1. The indicative, with which the subject is usually expressed; 

2. The imperative, with which tbe subject is usually omitted ; 

3. The infinitive, which has no subject. 

Or, perhaps it would be better to define these moods in the usual way. 
The " subjunctive " declares as much as the ''indicative" does, as far as the 
verb is concerned ; the only difference between he has loved and if he has 
loved consisting in the conjunction. 

Tenses. 

There are three divisions of time — -present, past 
and future. 

Remark. Strictly speaking, present time is merely the point at which the 
past and the future meet ; and if we take the smallest imaginable portion of 
time for the present, this portion will contain some of the past, and some of the 
future. Thus, if we assume this hour as the present time, a part of the hour 
is past, and a part to come : so if we take this minute or second. But we 
may take any portion of time — a day, a year, or a century — and consider the 
whole of it as constituting present time, and the rest of time as past or future- 

EXERCISES. 

What time is referred to in each of the following sentences? 

I walked yesterday. I walk to-day. I will walk to- 
morrow. John loves James. You study well to-day. Csesar 
defeated Pompey. Washington commanded the army. 
George is asleep. God loves good men. I will go home. 
Benjamin went to town last week. James stayed at home. 

I have written a letter to-day. You had written your 

How many divisions of time are there ? 

* In the perfect tense, for instance, we find real auxiliaries; as, " I have written." 
Here have is not employed in the same sense which it has as a principal verb, and 
written is not used as a simple participle. From the juxtaposition of these two 
words arises an idea which is not merely the sum of those expressed by have and 
written when used separately (have -}- written) ; as from the chemical union of two 
substances arises ateitium quid, or third substance, which is not either of the origin- 
al substances, nor both added together. We may trace the original meaning of have, 
"•out it is peculiarly modified by its connection with the participle, 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

letter, before 1 commenced mine. You will have written 
three, when you finish this. Many discoveries have been 
made in the present century. Many discoveries had been 
made before the commencement of this century. 

In each division of time there are two tenses, 
one of which represents the action or state as 
perfect, that is, complete at the time referred to, 
the other is indefinite with respect to the comple- 
tion. 

Thus we have six tenses — three indefinites, and three 
which represent the action as perfect or completed. These 
tenses may be named as follows : 

Tenses. 

T3 C Present Indefinite; as, "I write." 

Present time. < d , D J r . .. T , . it „ 

\ Fresent Perfect; as, " I have written. 

p ( Past Indefinite; as, " I wrote." 

run time. \.paft Perfect; as, « I had written." 

-p ( Future Indefinite; as, " I shall write." 

'".■'■•' ( Future Perfect; as, " I shall have written." 

Note. For the sake of convenience, the term indefinite 
may be omitted ; the names of the tenses will then be, Pre- 
sent, Present Perfect; Past, Past Perfect; Future, Future Per- 
feet. They are usually named as follows : Presenl^Perfect, 
Imperfect, Pluperfect, First Future, Second Future. 

Remarks, 

1. The perfect tenses are composed of the indefinite tenses of the auxiliary 
verb to have, and the auxiliary perfect participle of the principal verb. The 
auxiliary verb denotes the time, and the perfect participle the completion of 
the action. Thus, / have is the present tense of the auxiliary verb, and writ- 

How many tenses in each division of What are these tenses called? 

time? Of what are the perfect tenses com- 

What does each represent? posed? 

How many tenses in all? What does the auxiliary verb denote? 
How are they usually named? 

7 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ten is the perfect participle ; the two together forming the present perfect 
tense. So, JT had written, I shall have written. 

2. To denote action or state as imperfect, that is, as going on and not com- 
pleted, the various tenses of the verb to be are used with the imperfect parti- 
ciple; as, "I am writing, I was writing, I shall be writing." These forms 
might be called the Present imperfect, the Past imperfect, and the Future 

imperfect. 

The imperfect participle is also used with the perfect tenses of the verb 
to be; as, " I have been writing, I had been writing; I shall have been writ- 
ing." If appropriate names were given to these tenses, " I have been writ- 
ing," would be called the Present perfect imperfect— present referring to have, 
perfect to been, and imperfect to toriting. The form shows that present time is 
referred to, and that the state of being engaged in an imperfect or incomplete 
action is perfect or past. Have denotes the present time, been the perfect 
state, and writing the imperfect action. 

3. The indefinite tenses may often appear definite, but the definiteness 
arises from other circumstances than the form of the verb. 

4. Some verbs, from the nature of their signification, denote the continu- 
ance of the action; as, "I know him." These have none of the imperfect 
forms: "I am knowing him"'' is not used. 

Present Tense. 

The Present tense expresses what takes place 
in present time; as, "I love; I am loved!' 

Remark 1. Any existing custom or general truth may 
be expressed by this tense ; as, " Thomas visits me every 
day ;" " Vice produces misery." 

Remark 2. In animated narration, this tense is some- 
times used to express past events : the speaker is supposed 
to become so much interested, that the events seem to be 
passing before him ; as, 

" What sounds upon the midnight wind 
Approach so rapidly behind ? 
It is, it is the tramp of steeds, 
Matilda hears the sound, she speeds, 
Seizes upon the leader's rein." 



What does the participle denote? How may this tense be used? 

How is imperfect action denoted? Is this tense ever used to express past 

II ow may these forms be ealled 1 events? When is it used to express fu- 

Define the present tense. ture events ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

This tense is sometimes used, in dependent clauses, to 
express future events, chiefly after when, as soon as, till, 
after, before, and after relative pronouns; as, " I shall see him 
when he comes," that is, shall have come ; " I will go when 
John rises," that is, shall have risen ; " You will not see 
clearly till daylight appears ;" " I shall get a letter after the 
mail arrives ;" " He will not get a letter before the mail 
arrives;" "He will kill every one whom he meets." 

Remark 4. This tense may be used in speaking of an 
author long since dead, when we refer to his words which 
still exist ; as, " Virgil imitates Homer." 

Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 

The Present Perfect tense represents an action 
or state as finished or past in present time; as, " I 
have walked to-day;" "John has studied this week;" 
"Many excellent works have been written in this 
century." 

Note. The time is present, though the action or state is past : this tense 
cannot be used, if the smallest portion of time has intervened between that 
which is assumed as present, and that in which the event took place. Thus, 
it would be incorrect to say, " I have seen him a moment ago." 

Remark 1. This tense may be used when we speak of 
an author long since dead, when the works to which we refer 
are still in existence ; as, " Milton has written some noble 
works." 

Here we refer not so much to the act of writing, as to Milton's character 
as a writer, as shown in the works which still exist. But, if the works did 
not remain, we should say, " Milton wrote ;" and, even if the work is extant, 
if we refer to the act of writing, we use the past tense ; as, " Milton wrote 
Paradise Lost." 

Remark 2. This tense, as well as the present, is some- 
times used in dependent clauses to express a future event ; 
as, "When he has finished his studies, he will go home," 
that is, when he shall have finished. 

How may this tense be used in speak- How may this tense be used in speak- 
ing of an author who is dead 1 ing of an author who is dead? When is 
Define the present perfect tense. it used to express a future event? 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. [Imperfect^ 

The Past tense expresses what took place in 
past time; as, "I wrote a letter yesterday ;" " God 
created the world;" "Caesar was killed by Brutus." 

Remark 1. This tense is used only when the time has 
completely expired; but we sometimes say, "He walked 
to-day," referring to a portion of the day which has expired. 

Remark 2. As the present time sometimes denotes a pre- 
sent custom, so this tense sometimes denotes a past custom ; 
as, 

" Thirty steeds, both fleet and wight, 
Stood saddled in stable day and night, 
A hundred more fed free in stall : 
Such was the custom in Branksome Hall." 

Past Perfect Tense. [Pluperfect^ 

The Past Perfect tense represents an action or 
state as finished or past, at some past time referred 
to ; as, " I had written a letter, when he arrived ;" 
" The ship had sailed before he reached Boston." 

Future. 

The Future tense expresses what will take 
place hereafter; as, "George will go to town, and 
I shall see him." 

Remark. A future custom may be expressed by this 
tense ; as, " The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the 
leopard shall lie down with the kid ;" " And the lion shall eat 
straw like the ox." 



Define the past tense. Define the past perfect tense. 

When only is this tense used? Define the future tense. 

Does this tense ever denote a custom? Does this tense ever denote a custom? 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

Future Perfect Tense. [Second Future.] 

The Future Perfect tense represents an action 
or state as finished or past at some future time; 
as, "I shall have dined at one o'clock " "I will go 
before I shall have seen him." 

Note. In the second example, the future time to which shall have seen 
belongs, is not the same as that to which will go refers : the meaning is, " I 
will go before the time at which 1 shall have seen him ;" at which (time) 
denoting the future time to which shall have seen refers. 

Remarks on the Tenses in the different Moods. 

1. The indicative has six tenses. 

2. The subjunctive, being nothing more than the indicative (or potential 
after certain conjunctions,) has also six tenses. 

3. In conditions or suppositions the past form sometimes refers to present 
time ; as, " If I had a pen now I would write." In this sense the verb im- 
plies that the thing supposed does not exist. " I wish that I had wings" im- 
plies that I have no wings f " He walks as if he carried a mountain" implies 
that he does not carry a mountain. " If I have a pen " leaves it uncertain 
whether I have a pen or not. 

4. The Past perfect is used in the same way in reference to past time ; as, 
" If I had seen him yesterday, I would have spoken to him." Here had seen 
does not refer to an action completed yesterday, but merely expresses a sup- 
position with reference to past time. 

5. The verb to be has, in the singular number, a separate form in expres- 
sions of this kind, when the reference is made to present time ; thus, " If I 
were, if thou wert, if he were 11 '' instead of" If I was, if thou wast, if he was."* 
The plural has no separate form. 

6. Were is often used instead of toould be, or should be, and had when 
employed as an auxiliary, instead of would have or should have; as, " The 



Define the future perfect tense. When used in this way, what does the 

In what does the past form refer to verb imply 1 ? 
present time ? 

* These forms were formerly used promiscuously, at least in the second person ; 
as ," Before the heavens thou wert." Milton. Eminent grammarians have supposed 
that the two forms originated from the two different dialects of the Anglo-Saxon 
language. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

city were ruined by such a course ;" " James's fortitude had been laudable, 
had he persisted in his first intention." 

7. The past tense of other verbs is sometimes, though not often, used in 
the same way as were ; as, " Such a policy, while it gladdened the hearts of 
the poor, would in ten years cause a greater advance in the wealth," &c. — 
Princeton Review. Here gladdened is used instead of would gladden. 

8. The potential has four tenses, which are usually called the present, the 
perfect [present perfect,] the imperfect [past] and the pluperfect [past perfect.] 

EXAMPLES. 

Present — I may write, I can write, I must write. 

Present Perfect — I may have written, I can have written, I must 
have written. 

Past — I might write, I could write, I would write, I should write. 

Past Perfect — I might have written, I could have written, I would 
have written, I should have written. 



9. The present denotes present permission, ability, necessity, or ■ 
ity. Thus, " You may write " denotes that you have present permission to 
write ; " I can write," that I have present ability to write ; '•' I must write," 
that I am under present necessity of writing. " I may write " sometimes 
expresses present possibility; as, "I may -write to-morrow, but I have not 
determined." May is sometimes used in expressing a wish ; as, " May you 
be happy." 

Note. It is the ability, permission, necessity, or possibility that is present; 
the act of writing itself is future, if any particular time is referred to. These 
forms are easily understood, if may, can, and must are considered as in the 
present indicative, and write as in the infinitive. 

10. May have written, fyc, are the present indicative may, fyc, and the 
perfect infinitive to have written. " I may have written" means "It is pos- 
sible that I wrote." 

11. Might, could, would, and should -were originally the past tenses of 
may, can, will, and shall; could, ivould, and might are still sometimes used 
simply as past tenses ; as, " I could write yesterday ;" that is, -was able ; 
" Though I endeavored to dissuade him, he would go ;" that is, was deter- 
mined; "She would go out in the morning to gather flowers;" that is, was 
accustomed; " Often might she be seen returning in the evening;" that is, 
it was possible'to see her, &c. Should is not now used iu this way. 

12. These words are generally used to express a condition or an affirma- 
tion depending on a condition, and refer to present time, or are indefinite 
with regard to time ; as, " I could -write now, if you would permit me." 

* Can have written is not used in the affirmative form ; but it is used in interroga- 
tions and negations; as, " Can he have done this?" " He cannot have done this." Can 
have in interrogative and negative sentences corresponds to may have in affirmative 
sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY. 76 

13. They are often employed like the past tense of other verbs, to express 
a supposition referring to present time, and implying that the thing supposed 
does not exist; as, "If he would remain a few days, I would accompany 
him;" that is, if he were willing. 

14 Should often expresses present obligation, duty, fyc; as, " Yoxxskould 
be industrious." 

15. These words are often used to express a softened assertion; as, "I 
could-wish a change to be made;" "I shouldbe inclined to doubt his candor." 
In this sense they refer to present time. 

16. The forms assigned to the past perfect (pluperfect) are composed of 
might, could, would or should, and the perfect infinitive. They seem to be 
allied to the past perfect in form, since they are composed of a past form and 
the perfect infinitive, (though not the perfect participle;) yet they never have 
the meaning of this tense — they never denote an action completed at some 
past time referred to. In meaning this is simply a past (imperfect) tense. 
Thus, referring to present time, we say, "I would write to-day, if I had a pen;" 
that is, I am willing to write. Referring to past time we say, " I would have 
written yesterday, if I had had a pen ;" that is, I was willing to write. Might , 
could, fyc, are not used in a past sense, but they are considered as the pre- 
sent time of verbs which have no past form ; and they are made to refer to 
past time by changing the form of the verb with which they are connected. 
" I would have written" is used instead of " I woulded write ;" " I should 
have written " instead of " I shoulded write." 

17. This point may be illustrated by a comparison with the usage of the 
verb ought. This verb was originally the past tense of owe; thus, " You 
ought (owed) him a thousand pound." Skakspeare. It is now used in a pre- 
eent sense, and has no past form. When we wish to express a past duty or 
obligation, we make a change in the verb with which it is connected. Thus, 
" You ought to write to-day ; that is you are under obligations to write ; "You 
ought to have written yesterday ;" that is, you were under obligation to write. 
The perfect infinitive is employed here, not in its usual sense, but merely to 
give a past meaning to ought. 

18. The imperative has but one tense, which is called the present. This 
term has reference to the time in which the command is given ; the action is 
of course always to be performed after the time of speaking. 

19. The infinitive has two tenses, which are called the present or imper- 
fect, and the past or perfect. 

20. The present denotes an action as present in reference to the time of 
the verb with which it is connected. It may be joined with any tense of the 
verb ; as " I wish to write ;" " I toished to write ;" " I shall wish to write,"&c 

21. The perfect denotes an action as past in reference to the time of the 
verb with which it is connected; as, "He is said to have written ;" "He 
was said to have written ;" " He will be said to have written," &c. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

22. These forms refer only to the continuance or completion of the action : 
imperfect and perfect are the appropriate names. See "Participles." 

Number and Person. 

The number and person of the verb are the 
forms appropriated to the different numbers and 
persons of the subject. 

Thus, with the first person singular of the present tense we use love, with 
the second lovest, and with the third loves; as, " I love, thou lovest, he loves." 

Remark 1. Some languages have a peculiar form for every person in 
both numbers : but in English there are not so many separate forms. The 
second person singular has a form appropriated to itself in all the tenses, and 
the third person singular has a distinct form of the verb in the present tense — 
the present of the verb to have retaining this form when used as an auxiliary 
in the present perfect. There is no other change in regular verbs on account 
of the number and person of the subject. 

Remark 2. The three persons in the plural are always alike, and, with 
the exception of the verb to be, the same as the first person singular. 

Remark 3. The imperative mood has usually only the second person. 

Remark 4. In some languages this mood has the first person plural, and 
the third person in both numbers.* In the English language also these per- 
sons are sometimes used ; as in the following examples : 

" He that hath eeris of herynge, here he. Wiclif Matt xi. 

" Geve he to her a lybel. Id. Matt. v. 

" Send he his vassal train — himself advance — 
Here will I take my stand — decide our swords the chance." 

Hunt's Tasso. 

" Confide we in ourselves alone ;" " With virtue be we armed ;" "Cull ice 
the rose ;" " Do we what duty bids. Id. 

" Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm, 

And live the rest, secure from future harm." Pope. 

" Laugh those that can, weep those that may. Scott. 

" 'And rest we here,' Matilda said." Id. 

" My soul, turn from them— turn we to survey." Goldsmith. 

" Commence we now that higher state, 

Now do thy will as angels do." Montgomery. 



What are the number and person of verbs? 

* So far as I know, Mr. Goold Brown is the only grammarian who has noticed 
this fact. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

Remark 5. The usual mode of expressing the same idea is by using the 
infinitive mood, with the second person imperative of the verb let and the 
objective case of the noun or pronoun; as, "Let him hear;" " Let us con- 
fide." Let is often used in this way, even when there is no command ad- 
dressed to any one ; as, " Let there be light" 

Remark 6. The verb in such expressions as, " Hallowed be thy name " 
-Thy kingdom come," "Be it enacted," "Be it so," "So help me God'" 
" So do God to Abner," &c, should probably be considered as belonging to 
the third person of the imperative. 

Remark 7. The infinitive, as it has no subject, has no number and person. 



Participles. 

A participle is a word which expresses an 
action or state, like a verb, and belongs to a noun 
like an adjective. 

It is so called because it participates the properties both of a verb and an 
adjective. 

A participle, like a verb, denotes an action or state, and, like a verb, is 
transitive or intransitive, and when transitive has the active and passive 
voices; bat it cannot be so used as to express an affirmation. Like an adjec- 
tive it belongs to a noun ; as, " I see a man cutting wood." Here cutting 
denotes an action, is in the active voice, and has an object like a transitive 
verb ; and it belongs to the noun man like an adjective.* 

Note. The participle is no more entitled to be considered a distinct part 
of speech, than the infinitive mood is. They are both participles in the ety- 
mological sense of the term ,- the one participating the properties of an adjec- 
tive and a verb, the other of a noun and a verb. 



What is a participle? In what resp ects is a participle like a 

Why so called? verb? Like an adjective? 



* Participles are intermediate between verbs and adjectives, as zoophytes are 
between animals and vegetables. Lord Bacon gives the name participle to those 
productions which seem to afford a connecting link between the animal and vegeta- 
ble kingdoms. " The participles or confiners between plants and living creatures 
are such chiefly as are fixed, and have no local motion of remove, though they have 
amotion m their parts. * * * There is a fabulous narration, that in the northern 
countries there should be an herb that groweth in the likeness of a lamb, and feed- 
etn upon the grass, in such sort as it will bare the grass round about." Natural His. 
tory. t) 609. 

8 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Classes of Participles. 

Every verb has two participles — the imperfect and the 
perfect. 

The imperfect participle implies the continuance of the 
action or state; as, "I am writing;" "John was cutting 
wood." 

The perfect participle implies the completion of the action 
or state ; as, "Having cut the wood, he made a fire." 

Transitive verbs have in the passive voice, besides the 

imperfect and perfect participles, a third which may be 

called the passive participle. 

The imperfect participle of the passive voice of write is being written, 
the perfect having been written, and the passive participle written. 

The passive participle merely implies that the object to 
whose name it belongs is acted upon; as, "The wood was cut;" 
" Mary is loved." 

This participle is employed to aid in forming the perfect 
tenses of the active voice, and in such cases is a perfect par- 
ticiple and active in sense ; having changed its original mean- 
ing so entirely that it should not be considered the same par- 
ticiple. Written in connection with the auxiliary verb to have 
has the same relation to the completion of the action that 
having written has without such connection. For the sake 
of distinction this may be called the auxiliary perfect par- 
ticiple. 

Remarks. 

1 The imperfect participle is usually called the present, but it may 
denote either a present, past, or future action; as, "I am writing, I was 



How many participles has each verb? What does the passive participle im- 

mlt doe/the imperfect participle im- ply? What is this participle called :when 

r,lv?_the perfect? Bsed to Bld in f ormin & the perfect tenses 

What other participles have transitive of the active voice? 

verbs? 



ETYMOLOGY. 7 g 

writing, I shall be writing." The action is present only in relation to the 
time of the verb with which it is connected. 

2. As the imperfect participle denotes an action continuing or incomplete, 
so the perfect participle denotes an action completed at the time referred toby 
the principal verb. It may, like the imperfect participle, denote either a pre- 
sent, past, or future action, but it always represents the action as perfect or 
completed at the time referred to ; as, " Having cut the wood, he made a fire 
yesterday ;" " Having cut the wood, he is now making a fire ;" ''Having cut 
the wood to-morrow, he will make a fire." 

^ 3. That eminent grammarian, Goold Brown, calls this the pluperfect par- 
ticiple, " not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but be- 
cause it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be 
completed before the doing or being of something else ; and, of course, when 
the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the 
pluperfect tense of its verb; as, 'Having explained her views, it was necessa- 
ry she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised 
by pleasure.' Jamieson's Rhet. p. 181. Here, having explained is equivalent 
to when she had explained:' Institutes of Eng. Gram. p. 83. 

Pluperfect does not mean completed before; it is a technical name of a par- 
ticular tense, and if it is applied to a participle, it should be because the par- 
ticiple resembles the tense in some respect. When past time is referred to, 
it does resemble the pluperfect tense ; but when^rese?^ time is referred to, it 
resembles the perfect tense ; and if the time is future, it resembles the second 
future tense. If the time referred to in the example quoted by Mr. B. were 
present, having explained would be equivalent to when she has explained; 
and if the time were future, the same participle would be equivalent to 
when she shall have explained. It would be as correct to call this the second 
future participle as the pluperfect. 

The nature of this participle may be easily learned by observing to what 
tenses it is equivalent ; these are the present perfect, the past perfect and the 
future perfect. The participle then belongs to no particular division of time, 
and simply denotes action perfect, that is, completed at any time^ 

4. The passive participle is usually called the perfect participle. " It is 
manifest," says Mr. Brown, "that the perfect participle of the verb to love, 
whether active or passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound 
[having loved.} " In this we think he is mistaken. If we wish to express by 
a participle, an action completed at any time, we use the compound form, and 
this is the perfect participle. The characteristic of the participle in ed is, that 
it implies the reception of an action ; as, " Caesar was killed by Brutus." In 
this sentence Cccsar is represented as acted upon by Brutus. Was does not 
express this idea— it makes the affirmation, and points to the time, but killed 
is the word which denotes the reception of the action.* It does not denote 

* " Brutus killed Csesar," expresses in the active form, what «'■ Caesar was killed 
by Brutus " does in the passive. Some logicians, in analyzing killed, would say, 
that it contains the copula was, and the predicate hilling; incorrectly, however, for 
killing denotes the continuance of the action. Neither killing nor having killed would 
answer; a third participle would be necessary to denote the action, without refer- 



QO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

an action present, or completed at the time to which was refers. " Mary lives 
loving all, and loved by all." In this sentence loved certainly does not denote 
an action " done and completed;" it merely implies that the person to whose 
name it belongs is acted upon. " She is loved by all " is nothing more than 
" All love her" expressed in a passive form. This participle is the word which 
forms the passive voice— gives it its peculiar mode of signification. 

The use of this participle in the perfect tenses of the active voice should 
not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition. We 
might, with as much propriety, take into view the use of the verb to 
have as an auxiliary, when defining it as a principal verb. When a word 
entirely changes its application, it becomes in effect a different word. Words 
are classified according to their signification, and not according to form. 
It is probable that this participle was originally a passive participle ; but so 
far from being a passive participle now, it is used in intransitive verbs, which 
have no passive voice. See Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs. 

In the sentence, " I have built a house of stone," built has an active signi- 
fication and is the auxiliary perfect participle ; while in the sentence, " I have 
have a house, built of stone," it has a passive meaning, and forms the passive 
participle. 

The passive participle of certain verbs sometimes denotes completed action; 
as, " The house is emptied ;" " The house is built ;" " The letter is written."^ 
As far as the completion of the action is concerned, " The house is built " 
is equivalent to "The house has been built;" but the former sentence 
denotes an existing state, rather than a completed action. The name of the 
agent cannot be expressed in phrases of this kind. We cannot say, "The 
house is built by John." "When we say, " The house is built by mechanics," 
we do not express an existing state. 

5. The imperfect participle is sometimes improperly used for the perfect; 
as, " Saying [having said] this, he departed ;" " This being said, [having 
been said,] he departed." 

6. Participles are sometimes used as nouns ; as. "Play- 
ing is pleasant ;" " He spends too much time in playing." 
Participles, when used as nouns, may be called participial 
nouns. These participial nouns, in their use, resemble the 
infinitive more than they do the participle in its adjective 
sense.* 



What are participial nouns? 



ence to the continuance or the completion This participle would be the simple 
active participle, and would have the same relation to the active , form that kitted has 
to the passive. The active form expresses the copula and predicate by .one ^vord. so 
that there is no need of this tliird participle in the active ■voice. What that third 
participle would be to the active, the passive participle is to the passive. 

* " It is to be observed, also, that in English there are two infinitives, one in ivg, 
the same in sound and spelling as the participle present, from yvhich, however .it 
should be carefully distinguished : e.g. 1 rising early is healthful/ and it is health- 



etymology. 81 

Conjugation. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular ar- 
rangement of its parts, according to their voices, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

The only regular terminations added to verbs are est, s, ed, edst, and ing* 
Thus, 

Pain, painest, pains, pained, painedst, paining; 

Drop, droppest, drops, dropped, droppedst, dropping; 

Love, lovest, loves, loved, lovedst, loving ; 

Carry, carriest, carries, carried, carriedst, carrying. 
See General Rules for Spelling, iii, v., and vii. 
All other changes are made by the use of auxiliaries. 
In adding s, the same changes take place that occur in forming the plural 
of nouns ; as, wish, wishes; go, goes; tarry, tarries. 

The principal parts are the imperfect [present] infinitive, 
the past indicative, and the auxiliary perfect participle, which 
is the same in form as the passive participle. When these 
are known, all the parts of the verb may be formed by using 
the proper terminations and auxiliaries. 

In regular verbs all that is necessary to be known is the 

imperfect [present] infinitive. 

The present indicative is the same as the imperfect infinitive with the sign 
to omitted, except in the verb to be, which has am. 

Conjugation of the verb to love in the Active 

Voice. 

principal parts. 

Imper. InfinitiVe. Past Indicators- Auxiliary Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? What are the principal parts? 

ful to lise early,' are equivalent." "Grammarians have produced much needless 
perplexity in speaking of the participle in 'ing,' being employed so and so ; when it is 
manifest that that very employment of the word constitutes it, to all intents and 
purposes, an infinitive, and not a participle. The advantage of the infinitive ming, 
is, that it may be used in the nominative or in any oblique case." Archbishop Whate- 
ly. Logic, Book ii. Chap 1. $ 3. 

* The third person singular of the present formerly ended in eth. This termina- 
tion is still sometimes used in the solemn style. Contractions sometimes take place; 
as, sayst for sayest. 



82 english grammar. 

Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1st person, I love, We love, 

2d person. Thou lovest, Ye or you love, 

3c? person. He loves ; They love. 

Present Perfect Tense. (Perfect.) 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I have loved, We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; They have loved. 

Past Tense. (Imperfect.) 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I loved. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, You loved, 

3. He loved ; They loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. (Pluperfect.) 

Sing Plur. 

1. I had loved, We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; They had loved. 

Future Tense* 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall or will love, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. (Second Future.) 

Sing. Plur. 

1. 1 shall or will have loved, We shall or will have loved, 
2.Thou shalt or wilt have loved,You shall or will have loved, 
3. He shall or will have loved ; They shall or will have loved. 

* See Remarks on the Auxiliaries. 



ETYMOLOGY. gg 



Subjunctive Mood. 

This mood is the same as the indicative, except that it is 
preceded by a conjunction implying contingency, &c. ; as, 
if I love, if I have loved, if I loved, fyc. The auxiliary is 
©ften omitted in the future tense ; as, if I love, if thou love, 
if he love; that is, if I shall love, Sfc. 

Present Tease. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 

If I love, 

If thou lovest, 

If he loves ; 


Plur. 

If we love, 
If you love, 
If they love. 




Present Perfect 


Tense. (Perfect.) 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 

If I have loved, 
If thou hast loved, 
If he has loved ; 


Plur. 

If we have loved, 
If you have loved, 
If they have loved. 




Past Tense. 


(Imperfect.) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Sing. 

If I loved, 

If thou lovedst, 

If he loved ; 


Plur. 

If we loved, 
If you loved, 
If they loved. 



The pupil may proceed with the other tenses in the same way. 

Potential Mood.* 
Present Tense. , 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can or must love, We may or can or must love, 

2. Thou mayst, or canst or must love, You may or can or must love, 

3. He may or can or must love ; They may or can or must love. 



See " Remarks on the Tenses in the different Moods," 8—18. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Perfect Tense. (Perfect.) 

Sing. Plur. 

I.. I may or can * or or must have loved, We may or can or must have loved,, 

2. Thou mayst or canst or must have loved, You may or can or must have loved, 

3, He may or can or must have loved , They may or can or must have loved.. 

Past Tense, (Imperfect.) 

Sing^ Plur. 

1. I might, could, would, or should love, We might, could, would,qr should love, 

2, Thou n>ight?t, couidst, wouidst, or thouidst love, You might, could, would, or should love~ 
Z. He might, could, would, or should love; They might, could, would orshould love. 

Past Perfect, (Pluperfect.) 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should have 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couidst, wouidst, or You might, could, would, orshould have 

shouldst have loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, orshould They might, could, would or should have 

have loved; loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Sing. Plur. 

2. Love, or love thou; Love, or love ye, or love you. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Imperfect, (Present) Perfect Tense. 

To love* To have loved. 

Participles, 

Imperfecta (Present) 
Loving. 

Perfect. Auxiliary Perfect. 

Having loved. Loved, 

* Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

Remarks. 

1. The verb do is used as an auxiliary in the present and past tenses of 
the indicative and subjunctive, for the sake of emphasis ; also in the impera- 
tive; as. 





Indicative Mood 






Present Tense. 


— 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 
I do love, 
Thou dost love, 
He does love ; 

Past Tense. 


Plur. 
We do love, 
You do love, 
They do love. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 
I did love, 
Thou didst love, 
He did love ; 


Plur. 
"We did love, 
You did love, 
They did love. 




Imperative Mood. 




Sing. 

Do thou love; 


Plur. 
Do you love, or do ye love, 



2. Do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted ; as, '• If thou 
do repent." Sometimes also when may is omitted ; as, " That the shame of 
thy nakedness do not appear." Rev. iii. 18. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs. 
Learn, wish, play, jump, regret, follow. 

2. Tell the first person singular of all the tenses of the 
following verbs, together with the infinitive and participle. 

Paint, gather, heat, warm, look, try, study, hope, succeed. 

3. Tell the second person singular of the same verbs — - 
the third person — the first person plural — the second — the 
third. 

4. In what mood, tense, number, and person is each of the 
following verbs ? 

I have loved, he walked, we learn, I shall form, you have 
defeated, they will have completed, I may learn, I could 
walk, he could have formed, learn thou, he does desire^ 
I did learn, thou didst remain, thou hast waited, ye have 



86 * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

complied, wait ye, I had expected, thou hadst intended, 
George will learn, Joseph has waited, Mary has studied. 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb 
to he. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 





Emper. Infinitive. Past Indicative. 

Be. Was. 


Auxiliary Perfect Participle. 

Been. 




Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 
I am, 
Thou art, 
He is ; 


Plur. 

We are, 
You are, 
They are. 




Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Sing. 

I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been ; 


Plur. 

We have been, 
You have been, 
They have been. 




Past Tense. [Imperfect.] 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Sing. 
I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was ; 


Plur. 

We were, 
You were, 
They were. 




Past Perfect Tense. 


[Pluperfect.] 


i 
j. . 

2. 

3. 


Sing. 

I had been, 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been ; 


Plur. 

We had been, 
You had been, 
They had been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



87 



Future Tense. 





Sing. 


Plur. 


1. 


I shall or will be, 


We shall or will be, 


2. 


Thou shalt or wilt be, 


You shall or will be, 


3. 


He shall or will be ; 


They shall or will be, 



Future Perfect Tense. [Second Future.] 

Sing. Plur. 

1. 1 shall or will have been, We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; They shall or will have been. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

This mood has the tenses of the indicative ; and instead 
of the common form of the past tense, to express a suppo- 
sition referring to present time, it has a separate form in the 
singular. If I was refers to past time, and leaves it uncer- 
tain whether I was or was not : if I were refers to present 
time, and implies that I am not. See Remarks on the Tenses 
in the different Moods, 3 and 8. 

Past Tense. [Imperfect.] 



Sing. 

1. If I was, 

2. If thou wast, 

3. If he was ; 



Common Form. 



Plur.^ 

If we were, 
If you were, 
If they were. 



Sing. 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were ; 



Hypothetical Form. 



Plur. 

If we were, 
If you were, 
If they were. 



What is said of if I were,, <$-c? 



88 english grammar. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense, 

Sin S- Plur. 

1. Imayorcanormustbe, We may or can or must be, 

2. Thou mayst or canst or must be. You may or can or must be, 

3. He may or can or must be; They may or can or must be. 

Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 

Sing, Plur ^ 

1. I may or can or must have been, We may or can or must have been, 

2. Thou mayst or canst or must have been, You may or can or must have been, 

3. He may or can or must have been; They may or can or must have been. 

Past Tense. [Imperfect] 

Sin g- Plur. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or should be, We might, could,would or should be, 

2.Thou mightst,couldst,wouldst or shouldst be, You might, could,would orshouldbe, 
2. He might, could, would, or should be; They might, could,would orshouldbe! 

Past Perfect Tense. [Pluperfect.] 

Sing- Plur. 

1. I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should 

been > have been, 

2. Thou mightst, eouldst, wouldst, or "kou might, could, would, or should 

shouldst have been, have been 

3. He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

have been; have beeiu 

Imperative Mood. 

Sin g- Plur. 

2. Be, or be thou, or Be, or be ye, or be you, or do ye be, 

do thou be; or do you be. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Imperfect Tense. [Present] 
To be. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have been. 



etymology. 89 

Participles. 

Imperfect Tense. [Present.] 

Being. 

Perfect. Auxiliary Perfect. 

Having been. Been. 

Remarks. 

1. Be and beest were formerly used in the present; as, " We be the 
twelve brethren." Gen. xlii. 32. " There be of protestants," &c. Milton. 
" Thus much we all know and confess, that they be not of the highest nature." 
Bacon. " If thou beest he." Milton. 

2 The emphatic forms of the present and past tenses are not used in 
this verb. 

3. Were is often used instead of would be, and had been instead of would 
have been. See Remarks on the Tenses in the different Moods, 6. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the mood, tense, number, and person of each of the fol- 
lowing. 

I had been, you shall be, we shall have been, be, thou 
art, he has been, it is, John will be, James is, Mary could 
be, thou couldst have been, if he were, Sarah had been, 
we might have been. , 

Passive Voice. 

The passive voice is formed by using the passive parti- 
ciple with the verb to be. 

Conjugation of the verb to lone in the 
Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 
i. I am loved, We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, You are loved, 

3. He is loved; They are loved. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 

**• Plur. 

I' ^l^u l0V6d ' We have bee » ^ved, 

2. Thouhast been loved, You have been loyed 

3. He has been loved; They have been loved. 

Past Tense. [Imperfect.] 

; T Si "*' Plur. 

1. I was loved, We were 

2. Thou wast loved tr , 

»i juvea, You were loved, 

3. He was loved; They were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. [Pluperfect.] 

Sing. • pZun 

I' Thnf ^vr ec \ we had been iove ^ 

3* He h A b ° en } 0Ved > You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved; ^ had been loyed 



Future Tense. 

Sing. 



Plur. 



1. I shall or will be loved, Wo ei,oii 
o mu , , ' We shall or will be loved 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, V n„ =hoii ?,Y , ' 
s tr oc ,i, 1, •„ , . » *ou shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or wall be loved; They shall Qr wfl] be ^ 

.F^wre Per/^ 7W. [Second Future.] 



Sing 



Plur. 



I' Thof r al T n\ ^^ l0Ved ' We Sha11 " wiU ha ™ b -" loved, 

I' He shin °T "7 ^^ l0V6d ' Y ° U s ^or W m have been loved 

3. He shall or will have been loved ; They shall or will have been loved, 

Subjunctive Mood. 

[See the Conjugation of the verb to be.] 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



1. I may or can or must be loved, We may or can „ must bg 

3.Hem*yor C anormustbeloved; They may or can or must be loved 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 



Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I may or can or must have been We may or can or must have been 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst or must have You may or can or must have been 

been loved, loved, 

3. He may or can or or must have been They may or can or must have been 

loved; loved. 

Past Tense. [Imperfect.] 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I might, could, would, or should be We might, could, would, or should 

loved, be loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or You might, could, would, or should 

shouldst be loved, be loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

be loved; be loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. [Pluperfect.] 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should 

been loved, have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst couldst. wouldst, or You might, could, would, or should 

shouldst have been loved, have been loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

have been loved; have been loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Sing . Plur. 

2. Beloved, or be thou loved, or Be loved, or be ycioved, or be you 

do thou be loved; loved, or do you be loved. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Imperfect Tense. [Present.] Perfect Tense. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 



Participles. 

Imperfect. [Present.] Perfect. Passive. 

Being loved. Having been loved. Loved. 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remark. 

Certain intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the 
passive voice, without being passive in sense ; as, " He is 
gone ;" " The Lord is risen indeed." These do not admit 
after them the name of the agent with the preposition by, as 
transitive verbs in the passive voice do. 

Thus, we may say, " He is loved by John ;" but not, " He 
is gone by John." He has risen," and " He is risen," both 
represent the subject as performing the action. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs in the passive voice. 
Pain, follow, admit, attend, persuade, carry. 

2. Tell the first person singular of all the tenses of the 
preceding verbs in the passive voice, together with the infinitive 
and participle. 

3. Tell the second person singular of the same verbs — the 
third person singular — the first person plural — the second—' 
the third. 

4. In what voice, mood, tense, number, and person, is each 
of the following verbs? 

I am loved, thou hast been deceived, he is followed, we 
shall be helped, he has formed, he has been formed, I will 
admit, we may have been deceived, you should attend, to 
help, to be helped, having helped, having been helped, to 
have been helped, to have helped. 

Imperfect Form. 

The forms which denote the action or state as imperfect, 
or continuing, are composed of the imperfect participle and 
the verb to be. Thus, 

What is said concerning some intransitive verbs that have the form of the pas* 
sive voice 1 



etymology. 93 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I am writing, We are writing, 

2. Thou art writing, You are writing, 

3. He is writing; They are writing. 

Present Perfect Tense. [Perfect.] 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I have been writing, We have been writing, 

2. Thou hast been writing, You have been writing, 

3. He has been writing; They have been writing. 

The pupil may go through the other tenses in the same way. 
Remarks. 

1. Some verbs of this form are sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, 
" The house is building;" " While these arrangements were making." 

2. In modern usage the same idea is often expressed by the imperfect 
participle passive ; as, " What lies at the bottom of the question which is 
now being discussed every where ?" Dr. Arnold. Lectures on History. " He 
struck the Count de Harcourt a violent blow, as he teas being led away." — 
James. Life of Edward the Black Prince. 

This mode of expression is not improper in the nature of things, but it is 
too modern to be yet considered a principle of the language. 



Negative Form. 

In simple negation the adverb not is placed after the verb, 
or after the first auxiliary — sometimes after the- object of a 
transitive verb ; as, " I love not this man ;" " I do not love 
you ;" " I love you not" 

Not is placed before the infinitive and participles ; as, 
" Not to love ;" ** Not loving ;" and after the subject in the 
imperative mood, when the subject is expressed. 

The simple form of the present and past tenses is seldom used in this 
negative form. 

Where is the adverb, not, placed in simple negation? 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Present. 

Present Perfect. 

Past. 

Past Perfect. 

Future. 

Future Perfect. 

Present. 
Present Perfect. 

Present, 

Present Perfect. 

Past. 

Past Perfect. 



examples. 

Indicative Mood. 

I do not lore. 

I have not loved. 

I did not love. 

I had not loved. 

I shall or will not love. 

I shall or will not have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

If I do not love. 

If I have not loved, &c. 

Potential Mood. 

I may, can, or must not love. 
I may, or can, or must not have loved. 
I might, could, would, or should not love. 
I might, could, would or should not have 
loved. 



Imperative Mood. 
Love not, or love thou not, or do not love, or do thou not love. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Imperf ect. [Pi esent]Not to love. 
Perfect. Not to have loved, 

Participles. 

Imperfect. [Present] Not loving. 
Perfect. Not having loved. 

Note. The first person only is given. The pupil may name all the per- 
sons, and go in the same way through the passive, I am not loved, I have 
not been loved, fyc, 



etymology. 95 

Interrogative Form. 

In interrogative sentences the subject is placed after the 
first auxiliary, or after the verb when there is no auxiliary ; 
as, " Lovest thou ?" " Dost thou love ?" 

The simple forms of the present and past tenses are seldom used in inter- 
rogation. 

None but the indicative and potential moods can be used interrogatively. 

EXAMPLES. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present. Do I love % 

Present Perfect. Have I loved ? 

Past. . Did I love I 

Past Perfect. Had I loved f 

Future. Shall I love 1 

Future Perfect. Shall I have loved 1 

Potential Mood. 

Present. May, can, or must I love 1 

Present Perfect. May, can, or must I have loved 1 
Past. Might, could, would, or should I love 1 

Past Perfect. Might, could, would, or should I have 

loved 1 —■ 

Passive Voice. Am I loved 1 Have I been loved ? 
Was I loved ? &c. 

Interrogative Negative Form. 

In interrogative negative sentences the subject is placed 
after the first auxiliary, and followed by the adverb not : if 



How is the subject placed in interroga- How is the subject placed in interrog- 
tive sentences 1 ative negative sentences? 



96 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



no auxiliary is used, the subject and the adverb follow the 
verb. 

examples. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present. Do I not love ? 

Present Perfect. Have I not loved ? 

Past. Did I not love? 

Past Perfect. Had I not loved ? 

Future. Shall I not love ? 

Future Perfect. Shall I not have loved ? 

Potential Mood. 

Present. May, can, or must I not love ? 

Present Perfect. May, can, or must I not have loved ? 
Past. Might, could, would, or should I not love 1 

Past Perfect. Might, could, would, or should I not have 

loved ? 

Passive Voice. Am I not loved ? Have I not been 
loved ? Was I not loved ? &c. 

Irregular Verbs. 

An irregular verb is one which does not form 
its past tense and auxiliary perfect participle by 
adding ed. 

There are about one hundred and seventy irregular verbs, 
which may be divided into two classes — those in which the 
past tense and auxiliary perfect participle are alike, and those 
in which they are unlike. 

Some verbs have two forms of the past tense, or of the 



What is an irregular verb 1 



What two classes of irregular verbs? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



97 



auxiliary perfect participle, or of both. The preferable forms 
are first in order. If the first forms are alike, the verb is 
placed in the first class ; if they are different, it is placed in 
the second. 

Note. The second class should be particularly attended to, for it is with 
respect to verbs of this class that errors are most frequently committed. The 
past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle are alike in most verbs, and we 
are apt to use the one for the other when they differ. Thus, " I done," " I 
seen," are often used for " I did," "I saw;" and "I have went," "I have 
drank," for " I have gone," "I have drunk." So in the passive. "Toasts 
were drank " is now often used for " Toasts were drunk." * 

First Class. 



In which the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle 
are alike inform. 



Imperfect, or Present infinitive 


Past 


Abide, 


abode, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


Bend, 


bent, bended, 


Bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


Beseech, 


besought, 


Bind, 


bound, 


Bleed, 


bled, 


Breed, 


bred, 


Bring, 
Build, 


brought, 


built, builded, 


Burst, 


burst, 


Buy, 


bought, 


Cast, 


cast, 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


Cost, 


cost, 


Creep, 


crept, 


Crow, 


crowed, crew, 


Cut, 


cut, 


Dare, to venture,! 


dared, durst, 


Deal, 


dealt, dealed, 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 



Auxiliary Perfect Participle 

abode. 

beheld. 

bent, bended. 

bereft, bereaved. 

besought. 

bound. 

bled, 

bred. 

brought. 

built, builded. 

burst. 

bought. 

cast. 

caught, catched. 

clothed, clad. 

cost. 

crept. 

crowedt 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt, dealed. 

dug, digged. 

dwelt, dwelled. 



Name the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle of abide— of behold- 
of bend, fyc. 



* It would be better for those who are afraid to say " Toasts were drunk," lest it 
might be supposed that the toasts were intoxicated, to use some other form of ex- 
pression, such as, " The company drank toasts," and not make the innocent lan- 
guage suffer to save the character of the toasts. 



+ Dare, to challenge, is regular. 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect, or Present Infinitive 


Past 




Auxiliary Perfect Participle, 


Feed, 


fed, 




fed. 




Feel, 


felt, 




felt. 




Fight, 


fought, 




fought. 




Find, 


found, 




found. 




Flee, 


fled, 




fled. 




Fling, 


flung, 




flung. 




Get, 


got, 




got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilt, gilded, 


gilt, gilded. 


Grave, 


graved, 




graved, 


graven, 


Grind, 


ground, 
hung, h 
had, 
heard, 




ground, 




Hang, 
Have, 
Hear, 


anged, 


hung, 

had, 

heard, 


hanged. 






Heave, 


heaved, 


hove, 


heaved, 


hoven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 




hewed, 


hewn. 


Hit, 


hit, 




hit. 




Hold, 


held, 




held. 




Hurt, 


hurt, 




hurt. 




Keep, 


kept, 




kept. 




Kneel, 


kneeled, 


knelt, 


kneeled, 


, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Lade, 


laded, 




laden. 




Lay, 


laid, 




laid. 




Lead, 


led, 




led. 




Leave, 


left, 




left. 




Lend, 


lent, 




lent. 




Let, 


let, 




let. 




Light, 


lighted, 


lit, 


lighted, 


lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 




lost. 




Make, 


made, 




made. 




Mean, 


meant, 




meant. 




Meet, 


met, 




met. 




Mow, 


mowed, 




mowed, 


mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 




paid. 




Put, 


put, 




put. 




Gluit, 


quitted, 


quit, 


quitted, 


quit. 


Read, 


read, 




read. 




Rend, 


rent, 




rent.* 




Rid, 


rid, 




rid. 




Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 




Saw, 


sawed, 




sawed, 


sawn. 


Say, 


said, 




said. 




Seek, 


sought, 




sought, 
seethed, 




Seethe, 


seethed, 


sod, 


sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 




sold. 




Send, 


sent, 




sent. 




Set, 


set, 




set. 




Shape, 


shaped, 




shaped. 


shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 




shaved, 


shaven. 


Shed, 


shed, 




shed. 




Shine, 


shone, 


shined, 


shone, 


shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 




shod. 




Shoot, 


shot, 




shot, 




Shut, 


shut, 




shut. 




Shred. 


shred, 




shred. 




Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrank, 


shrunk, 


shrunken. 



'When forests are rended." Sir Walter Scott. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


9 


Imperfect, or Present Infinitive 


Past 


Auxiliary Perfect Participle 


Bmg, 


sting, sang, 


sung, 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped, 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent, 


Spill, 


spilt, spilled, 


spilt, spilled. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten. 


Split, 


split, 


split, 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung, 
stunk. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String,- 


strung, 


strung. 


Sweat, 


sweated, sweat, 


sweated, sweat. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen, 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, throve, 


thrived, thriven. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


"Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wind, 


wound, -winded, 


wound. 


"Wring, 


wrung, wringed, 


wrung, wringed. 



Second Class. 

In which the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle 
are different inform. 



Imperfect, or Present Infinitive 


Past 


Auxiliary Perfect Participle. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore, bare, 


borne, born. * 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


begot, 


begotten, begot. 


Begin, 


began, 
bid, bade, 


begun. 


Bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 



* Born signifies brought forth, and is now used only in the passive form, and with- 
out reference to the agent; as, "A child was born." We cannot say, " A child 
was born by her." 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect, or Present Infinitive 


Past 


Auxiliary Perfect Participle 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, to split,* 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven, 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Ely, 


flew, 


flown. 


Eorbear, 


forbore, forbare, 


forborne. 


Eorget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Eorsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grow, 


grew, 
hid, 


grown. 


Hide, 


hidden, hid. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden, rode. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, sheared. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Slay, 
Slide, 


slew, 


slain. 


slid, 


slidden, slid. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stride, 


strode, strid, 


stridden, strid. 


Strive, 


strove, strived, 


striven, strived. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, strowed. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Tread. 


trod, trode, 


trodden, trod. 


"Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


"Weave, 


wove, weaved, 


woven, weaved. 


Write, 


wrote, writ, 


written. 



Remark. Instead of ed, t is sometimes used in some words ; thus, smelt 
is used for smelled, spelt for spelled, curst for cursed, dreamt for dreamed. 
The regular form should be used. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following. 
The tree was shook by the wind. Having arose from 



* Cleave, to adhere, is regular. 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

the bed. He set down. While yet young, he become gray, 
in consequence of the misfortune that had befell him. He 
begun well, but did not continue as he had began. The wind 
blowed down the apple tree. The apples had all fell off. 
The branches were badly broke. 

A speaker was chose by the meeting. John come down 
stairs in a hurry. After the letter had came, I found it was 
so badly wrote, that it could not be read. The ball was 
throwed over the fence. The water was drew from the well. 
He had mistook the meaning of the phrase. The water is 
froze. I seen the horse run. 

He give me a dollar. The tree was shook by the wind. 
He drunk too much. The wine was all drank up. The cloth 
is well wove. He had went away before I come. John done 
well. The bottle is broke. The cork was drawed out. 
The horses were drove to pasture. He has mistook my 
meaning. A race was ran. Yesterday I run all the way 
to school. My shoes are almost wore out. The leaves of 
the book are tore. Somebody has took my cup. , 

The speech was well spoke. He sown tares with his 
wheat. Goliath was smote in his forehead. Having slew 
the enemy, he returned. , The tired man lain down. Being 
tired I laid down. The plants growed rapidly. When they 
shall have grew large, they will be cut down. The child was 
forsook by its parents. Some thief has stole my~knife. The 
moon has rose. His work is did. He begun his lesson. 
The waggon was drawed by oxen. They were drove by a 
small boy. After he had fell down, he laid in the dust. 
After laying a while, he raised up. 

The door is shet. All my money is spended. He weep- 
ed bitterly. The little girl stringed the beads. A bee sting- 
ed him. He sleeped soundly. The tune was sang. He 
blowed the trumpet, and the laborers all come home. The 
dog was gave away. He knowed better. 

10 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Conjugation of the irregular verb 
to take. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Imperfect Infinitive. Past, Auxiliary Perfect Participle. 

Take. Took. Taken. 

Indicative Mood. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Present, 

I take. I am taken. 

Present Perfect. 

I have taken. I have been taken. 

Past. 

I took. I was taken. 

Past Perfect. 

I had taken. I had been taken. 

Future. 

I shall or will take. I shall or will be taken. 

Future Perfect. 

I shall or will have taken. I shall or will have been taken. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. 

If I take. If I am taken. 

Potential Mood. 
Present. 

I may, or can, or must take. I may, or can, or must be taken. 

Present Perfect. 

I may, or can, or must have I may, or can, or must have bees 

taken. taken. 



ETYMOLOGY. 1Q3 



ACTIVE PaSt. PASSIVE 

I might, could, would, or should I might, could, would, or should 

take. be taken. 

Past Perfect. 

I might, could, would, or should I might, could, would, or should 

have taken. have been taken. 



Imperative Mood. 



Take, or take thou, 
or do thou take. 


Be taken, or be thou taken, 
or do thou be taken. 


Infinitive Mood. 


To take. 


Imperfect. 

To be taken. 


To have taken. 


Perfect. 

To have been taken. 




Participles. 


Taking. 


Imperfect. 

Being taken. 


Having taken. 


' Perfect. 

Having been taken. 


Auxiliary Perfect. 
Taken. 


Passive. 
Taken. 



Defective Verbs. 

Defective verbs are such as are remarkable for 
wanting some of their parts. The following is a 
list of them. 

What are defective verbs? 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present. Past. Present. Past. 

Can, could. quoth. 

May, might. Shall, should. 

Must, Will, would. 



Ought, 



Remarks. 



1. When must and ought refer to past time, a change is made in the 
infinitive with which they are joined. See Remarks on the Tenses in the dif 
ferent Moods, 17. 

2. Quoth is now used only in ludicrous language, and always refers to 
past time. 

3. Must is not varied. The rest are varied in the second person only. 
Will as a principal verb is regular. 

4. The word beware seems to have been two words, be and ware; as, 
"Be ye war of the sour dough of the Farisees and Saduceis." Wiclif. It is 
used in those tenses in which be is used in the verb to be. 

5. Impersonal Verbs. Some verbs are used only in the third person sin- 
gular, having the pronoun it for their subject ; as, it snoios, it rains. These 
are sometimes called impersonal verbs. Unipersonal, that is, having one 
person, would be a more appropriate name.* 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

An auxiliary verb is one which is used in con- 
jugating other verbs. They are do, have, he, shall, 
will, may, can, and must. 

Do, be, and have are also principal verbs. 



Give the list of defective verbs. "What are impersonal verbs? 

What is an auxiliary verb? 

* " Every verb, employed in a personal mode, necessarily has a subject. Eut il 
very often happens that we are witnesses of effects whose causes are unknown to 
us, or, that we wish to express the effects without expressing- the cause otherwise 
than indefinitely. Then we commonly employ as Subject the Pronoun of the third 
person, and in languages in which this Pronoun has three Genders we generally 
take the Neuter. Thus, when we say in English, " it thunders," " it rains," " it 
snows," it is clear that the Pronoun " it " denotes in a vague and indefinite manner 
the Subject of which the Attiibute is thundering, raining, snowing. It is as though 
we had said, " the cause, which produces the thunder, the rain, or the snow, thun- 
ders, rains, or snows." " FosdicVs Translation of De Sacy's General Grammar. 



ETYMOLOGY. 105 

Do. 

Do is used for emphasis, and also in negative and interrogative sentences 
without emphasis. Formerly it was sometimes used in simple affirmative 
sentences ; as, " The young lions do lack." Ps. xxxiv. 10. " False witnesses 
did rise up." Ps. xxxv. ii. See the quotation from Home Tooke, tinder the 
head of " Moods," Remark 6. 

It is sometimes used as a kind of pro-verb, if the expression may be allow- 
ed, standing instead of a repetition of some verb which has preceded ; as, 
" He studies better than you do;" that is, than you 



Be. 

The verb to be, when used as an auxiliary, connects the subject and the 
participle expressing the affirmation. 

Have. 

The use of have as an auxiliary probably originated in its being used to 
express the possession of something represented as the object of an action 
denoted by the participle ; as, " I have money concealed" [by myself] ; " I 
have concealed money ;" that is, money which is concealed. By degrees the 
idea of possession has been dropped ; and the participle has changed its 
mode of signification, so that, instead of being passive, it is now active in 
sense, and instead of belonging to the noun like an adjective, it now governs 
it in the objective case, when it is a transitive. It has become so entirely 
changed that intransitive verbs have this participle, though they cannot have 
a passive participle. See Matthias's Gr. Grammar. § 559. 

Shall and Will. 

1. Shall is from the Anglo-Saxon scealan, the original meaning of which 
is to owe. Thus, "Agyf thaet thu me scealt," Pay what thou owest me, [shalt 
me] ; " Se him sceolde tyn thusend punda," Who owed [should]_^'m ten thou- 
sand pounds. Chaucer uses the word in this sense ; as, " By the faith I shall 
to God ;" that is, owe. 

2. The original meaning may still be traced in the present use of this 
word ; as, " Thou shalt not kill ; that is, thou owest, art under obligation, not 
to kill. " In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die ;" that is, 
thou owest, art destined to die. " It shall come to pass ;" that is, it owes, is 
obliged, is destined, to come to pass. 

3. So in the past tense, " Judas Iscariot which should betray him ;" that 
is, was destined to betray him. Should is not now used in this manner. 

4. This word is used to denote the obligation or necessity as arising from 
the determination of another; as, " You shall write. 

5. What one owes, is obliged, is destined, to do, is, of course, future : the 
idea of futurity has prevailed over that of obligation in certain cases ; thus? 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" I shall be compelled to leave my pleasant home ;" " If ye shall see the Son 
of Man ;" " Before the child shall know ;" " Every one who shall be present 
will hear." 

6. Will expresses will, determination, inclination; as, " He will write 
in spite of my opposition ;" that is, is determined. 

7. What one wills, is determined, to do, must be future ; and in the second 
and third persons the idea of determination is sometimes lost in that of futu- 
rity ; as; " He will be compelled to leave his pleasant home." 

8. The mode of expressing simple futurity in English has arisen from 
attributing the future event to the obligation or necessity, as far as the person 
who foretells is concerned, and to determination on the part of others. 

9. The foreigner, who, when drowning in the Thames, cried out, "I will 
drown, nobody shall help me," should have said, " I shall drown, nobody tcill 
help me ;" that is, according to the original meaning of the words, I am in cir- 
cumstances that I am obliged to drown, nobody has the will to help me. 

10. Errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writer s 
with respect to the use of shall and will. Thus. 

" We have much to say on the subject of this Life, and will often find our- 
selves obliged to dissent from the opinions of the biographer." T. B. Macau- 
lay. Art. on Bacon. 

The writer intends by will find to express simple futurity, and as the future 
action is to be performed by the person who foretells, shall find should be 
used. The writer, without intending it, has expressed his determination to 
find himself obliged to dissent. 

"If we consider the influence exerted by the point Daghesh on the sylla- 
ble preceding it, we will perceive that," &c. Nordheimer. Heb. Grammar. 

This is incorrrect for the same reason. 

11. The assertions of Mr. Murray, Dr. Webster, and other grammarians, 
that shall, in the first person, simply foretells; in the second and third per- 
sons, promises, commands, or threatens; and that ivill, in the second and third 
persons, only foretells, should be received with considerable modification. 

We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing resolution; and 2. as 
expressing futtirity. 

Resolution. 

12. Shall expresses a resolution or promise of an indi- 
vidual concerning the actions, &c. of others. When the first 
person is represented as expressing the resolution, shall is 
used in reference to the actions, &c. of the second and third 
persons, and will in reference to those of the first. Thus, 



ETYMOLOGY. 10 7 

r I will write. 
I" am resolved, I promise, <$fc. that < You shall write. 

C He shall write. 

Note. When these forms do not depend on a preceding clause, it is always 
the first person that expresses the resolution. 

13. When a question is asked, the resolution, &c. of the 
second person is referred to : accordingly, shall is used in the 
first and third persons, and will in the second. Thus, 

1. Shall I write? 2. Will you write? 

3. Shall he write? 

These forms are equivalent to, " Are you resolved, or are you willing that 
I shall write? &c. 

14. The principle may be further seen in the following examples. 



C I shall write. 
V 



Yon are resolved, you promise, fyc. thatl You will write. 

f He shall write. 



C I shall write. 



He is resolved, SfC. that 2 You shall write. 
(_ He toill write. 

Will write is used when he refers to the person who has formed the reso- 
lution ; in reference to another it would be shall write; as, " He is resolved 
that John shall write." 

15. Will may express a resolution of the subject of the verb in all the 
persons. Thus, 

SI toill write. 
You will write. 
He will write. 



Futurity. _ 

16. To express simple futurity, shall is applied to the 
future actions, &c. of the person who is represented as fore- 
telling, or supposing the future events, and will to those of 
others. 

Shall, however, is used in the first person, even when 

others are represented as foretelling. 

f I shall be elected. 
I believe, I hope, fyc. that < You will be elected. 
( He will be elected. 

Or, without any dependence on a preceding clause, 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I shall be elected, You will be elected, He will be elected. 

jf I shall be elected. 
You shall be elect 
He will be elected. 

shall be elected. 



You believe, you h&pe, fyc. that ■{ You shall be elected. 



He Mie.es, he hopes, *c. that { g«« * &££ 
(^ John ?oi/Z be elected. 

Interrogatively. 
Shall I be elected? Shall you be be elected?* Will he be elected? 

17. »S&a^ is used to denote simple futurity after the conjunctions if, 
though, fyc, after the conjunctive adverbs toheii, until, after, before., Spc, and 
after relative pronouns, when the relative clause is an essential modification 
of the antecedent. See Examples under "Shall and Will," 5. In the exam- 
ple, " Every one who shall be present will hear," the relative clause, who 
shall be present, is an essential modification of the antecedent ; it is not every 
one who 'will hear, bat every one who shall be present. " Whosoever shall 
kill, shall be in danger of the judgment." Here, whosoever shall kill is an 
essential modification of the antecedent (person) understood. 

Should and Would. 

18. In genera], should and would have the same refer- 
ence to obligation and will, that the present tenses shall and 
will have. Thus, 

" Thou art the Christ which should come into the world ;" that is, was 
destined t to come. " In spite of opposition he would go ;" that is, teas de 
termined. 

19. When a present or future tense would be followed by 
shall, a past tense is followed by should ; if the present or 
future would be followed by will, the past is followed by 
would. Thus, 

f I will write, C I tcould write, 

I promise that< You shall write, I promised that< You should write, 
(_ He shall write. (. He should write. 

J I shall write, C I should -write, 

You will write, You promised that < You tcould write, 
He shall write. (. He should write. 



* Dr. Webster says, " Shall you go? asks for information of another's intention."' 
It appears to me that this use of the phrase is a provincialism. Will you go? asks 
for information of another's intention. 

t Should is not now used in this manner. 



ETYMOLOGY. 109 

r I shall be elected, f I should he elected, 

I believe that 1 You will be elected, I believed that < You would be elected, 
(. He «>27Z be elected. ( He would be elected. 

These words are often used to express conditions, &c. See -'Remarks on 
the Tenses in the different Moods." 

20. A clause expressing a condition or supposition may 
leave it uncertain whether the thing supposed does or does not, 
will, or will not, exist; or, it may imply that it does not exist; 
or, it may refer to past time and imply that it did not exist. 
Thus, " If he has a pen," leaves it uncertain whether he has 
or has not a pen ; " [f he had a pen," implies that he has not 
a pen ; " If he had had a pen," implies that he had not. 

When shall would be used in a conditional clause of the 
first kind, or in the clause that expresses the conclusion de- 
pending on the condition, should is used in the corresponding 
one of the second, and should have in one of the third. When 
will would be used in one of the first kind, would and would 
have are used in the second and third. Thus, 

" If he has a pen, he shall write ;" 

" If he had a pen, he should write ;" 

" If he had had a pen, he should have written." 

" If he has a pen, he will write ;" 

" If he had a pen, he would write ;" 

" If he had had a pen, he would have written." 

21. The conclusion often stands without a conditional clause, bat with a 
tacit reference to some condition ; as, " I should be pleased to hear him," [if 
I had the opportunity.] " Such an event would be very distressing," [if it 
should happen. 

22. Hence it is that should and would are used to express a softened 
assertion : thus, instead of saying, " I doubt his candor," we sometimes sa y 
"I should doubt his candor," as if there were a condition implied," if I could." 
So, " It tvould seem to be necessary," is a softened mode of expressing " It 
seems to be necessary." 

23. Should and would do not always imply the non-existence of the thing 
supposed. 

24. Should often denotes merely a supposed future event, andinthis sense 
is used in all the persons ; as,"If I should be elected, I will accept the office." 



HO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

25. Should is used in an indefinite sense after the conjunction that; as, 
" I am surprised that he should act so." 

26. Should is often used in all the persons to denote present obligation or 
duty. " John shall write," has come to imply a resolution on the part of some 
one, and should is used with the original meaning of shall; as, " John should 
write ;" that is, owes, is under obligation to write. 

27. To express a past obligation, a change is made, not in should, but in 
the verb with which it is connected; as, "John should have loritten yesterday." 
See "Remarks on the Tenses in the different Moods.''' 16, 17. 

28. So, toould is sometimes used with a present signification to denote a 
will or wish ; as, *> When I ivould do good, evil is present with me." 

29. Will is sometimes used in the present, and toould in the past tense, 
to denote a repeated or customary action ; as, " He will sometimes spend 
whole hours there;" "He ivould sometimes spend whole hours there." 

" These things to hear, 
Would Desdemona seriously incline ; 
But still the house affairs would draw her thence ; 
Which ever as she could with haste despatch, 
She 'd come again." Shakspeare. 

May, Can, and Must; Might and Could. 

30. May had originally the signification that can now has; as, "I may 
all thyngis in him that comforteth me." Wiclif. 

31. It was sometimes -written Thoioe* and was not confined to the present 
and past tenses. Thus, Wiclif says, 

•• Many seken to entre ; and they schulen not mowe;" that is, shall not may, 
or be able. 

" Which thou shalt mowe suffre." Chaucer. 

"Despoiled of mozving to do yvel," [of maying, being able to do evil.] — 
Chaucer. 

32. This word now generally denotes power as granted by some one, 
that is, liberty or permission. 

33. "With the perfect infinitive, and sometimes with the imperfect or pre- 
sent, it denotes possibility; as, " He may have written ;" that is, it is possible 
that he wrote, or has written, '• He may write, perhaps ;" here may denotes 
possibility. See "Remarks on the Tenses in the different Moods.''' 



* A fact which shows that words now in use among the common people only, are 
not always corruptions, is, that the old form mought is still used in some places for 
might. This word occurs frequently in old writers; thus, 

e ' Winter and summer they mought well fare." Spenser. 



ETYMOLOaY. HI 

34. The original meaning of can is to know; as, " I can but smal gram- 
mere." Chaucer. 

So, in the past tense, 

"A few termes coude he, two or three, 

That he had learned out of some decree." Chaucer. 

35. Like may it was not confined to the present and past tenses of the 
indicative mood : thus, Chaucer says, " She should not con ne mowe attaine :" 
that is, She should not know how, nor be able to attain. 

36. With respect to some things, to knoto hoxo is to he able to do them ; 
thus, " I know how to read," and " I am able to read," convey the same idea. 
Hence can came to denote the idea of ability, while its signification of know- 
ledge has gradually disappeared. 

37. Might and could have, in general, the same relation to may and can, 
that could and would have to shall and will. 

38. Must denotes necessity. When it is used to denote a. past necessity, 
a change is made in the verb with which it is connected; as, " I determined 
to tell him, for he must have learned it some time or other ;" that is, he was 
necessitated to learn it. 

39. But this is not the usual signification of must with the perfect infini- 
tive. " He must have written this letter," means, it is necessary to believe 
that he wrote it ; not, he was necessitated to write it. 

Exercises on shall and will, should and would. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences. The figures 
at the end of the sentences refer to the article which explains 
the principle. 

I will be compelled to go home. 16 I am resolved that I 
shall do my duty. J2 1 was resolved that I shmild do my 
duty. 19 I hope that I will see him. 16 I promise that I shall 
not forsake you. 12 "I will be ruined if you do not assist me. 16 
I hoped that I would see him. 19 I am afraid that I will not 
see him. 16 Where will I drive you? 13 I will be whipped, if I 
do this. 16 I would have been whipped, if I had done this. 20 I 
am resolved that I shall not be treated in this manner, if I can 
help it. 12 I was resolved that I should not be treated in this 
manner, if I could help it. 19 I would have been obliged to 
desist, if he had not encouraged me. 20 Perhaps I will find 
some money, 16 Perhaps you shall find some money. 16 If we 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

examine this, we will perceive its utility. 17 If we examined 
this, we would perceive its utility. 20 If we had examined 
this, we would have perceived its utility. 20 I will drown, 
nobody shall help me. 12 ' 14 He said that he would drown, and 
that nobody should help him. 19 You are determined that I 
will be deceived. 12 ' In spite of opposition, I shall go. 12 I 
would be pleased to see him. 21 ' What sufferings will I have to 
endure? 16 What sufferings would I deserve, if I were forced 
to do this? 20 How often will I see you? 16 Will we hear a 
good speech, if we go 1 ? 17 Would we hear a good speech, if 
we were there? 20 I will receive a letter, when the mail will 
have arrived. 16 ' 17 I believe that all shall receive their money, 
when the work will have been completed. 16 ' 17 1 believed that 
all should receive their money, when the work would have 
been completed. 16 ' 17 ' 20 I would not be surprised to see him 
there. 23 

Remark. These sentences may be corrected as follows : " I icill be com- 
pelled to go borne" is incorrect, because the first person foretells an event 
which is to happen to himself, and in that case shall must be ussd. " I am 
resolved that I shall do my duty " is wrong, because it is intended to express 
a resolution of the first person with regard to his own actions, and in that case 
will must be used. 

Parsing Exercises. 

[The words in italics are prepositions.] 

A good man wot ships God. John can write a letter. Wil- 
liam has written two letters. You should honor your parents. 
I have seen George. You have deceived me. Fishes swim. 
Joseph has been sick. You will be sick if you eat that fruit. 
Men should obey their rulers. Determine to perform what 
you undertake. Caesar conquered Pompey. Pompey was 
conquered by Ceesar. Cicero was eloquent. Will you come? 
Has William arrived? He could cut wood. Avoid vicious 
company. John will visit us. The mischievous boy was 
chastised. Your hair has been cut. I cut my thumb. Idle 
boys will be despised. Evil communications corrupt good 
manners. 



ETYMOLOGY. H3 

Tie your brother's shoes. Ask no questions. Take your 
proper place. Sit in your own chair. Let him learn his 
lesson. Be advised by your friends. Shut the door. See 
the snow. Hear the winter wind blow. 

Will your father come? Can the horse jump over the 
fence? Did the man kill the bear? Was the steamboat burned? 
Will the stage be full? May I go to the door? Have you 
studied the book? Can you parse a verb? 

To parse a verb, 

Tell 1. What part of speech — and why? 

2. Regular or irregular — and why? 

3. Conjugate it. 

4. Transitive or intransitive — and why? 

5. Voice. Active or passive — and why? 

6. Mood — and why? 

7. Tense — and why? 

8. Decline the tense. 

9. Number — and why? 

10. Person — and why? 

11. Subject. 

12. Rule. 

If the verb is in the infinitive mood, 

Tell 8. Depends on (or is governed by) what word. 
9. Rule. 

If the verb is defective, tell such of the above enumerated par- 
ticulars as are applicable. 

MODEL- 

" A good man worships God." 
Worships, 
Is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed ; regular — it fonns its 

How do you parse a verb? How do you parse a defective verb? 

How do you parse a verb in the infinitive 
mood? 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

past tense and perfect participle by adding ed — present worship, past wor- 
shipped, participle tvorshipped; transitive — requires an object to complete tbe 
sense; active voice — tbe agent acts upon the object; indicative mood — it 
simply declares a thing ■ present tense — it expresses what takes place at the 
present time — 1st pers. sing. I worship, thou worshippest, he worships; plur. 
we worship, you worship, they worship; singular number and third person — 
because the subject (man) is, with which it agrees. 

Rule, A verb agrees with its subject-nominative in number and person. 

"John can write a letter." 

Can write, 
Is a verb ; irregular — its past tense and participle do not end in ed — pre- 
sent write, past wrote, participle written; transitive, &c. ; active voice, &c. ; 
potential mood — it asserts the power of performing an action ; present tense, 
&c. &c. 

[Or, as we think better. See page 74, Note to Remark 9.] 
Can, 
Is a verb, &c; defective — it is used only in the present and past tenses: 
indicative mood, &c. ; present tense, &c. ; third person and singular number, 
&c, &c, 

Write, 
Is a verb, &c. ; infinitive mood — it expresses action without limiting it to 
a subject; imperfect tense — it denotes an action not completed; it depends on 
(or is governed by) the verb can. 

Rule. The infinitive mood may depend on a verb* 

" You should honor your parents." 
Should honor, 
Is usually parsed as in the potential mood, past tense. It may (and as we 
think better) be parsed thus, 

Should, 
Is a verb; defective — it is used only in the present and past tenses ; indi- 
cative mood — it simply declares a thing ; past tense, used here to express a 
present obligation ; third person, singular, &c. 

Honor, 
Is to be parsed in the same manner as write. 

" Pompey was conquered by Ceesar." 
Was conquered, 
Is a verb ; transitive — it requires an object to complete the sense ; passive 
voice — the object is acted upon by the agent ; indicative mood, &c. 

* Only that, part of the rule is quoted, which applies to the case. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



115 



Preposition. 

A preposition is a word which shows the rela- 
tion between a noun or pronoun and some pre- 
ceding word; as, 

" The hatred of vice;" " This book will be useful to John ;" 
" He lives for glory;" " He acts consistently with his prin- 
ciples." 

Here of shows the relation between vice and hatred; to, between John and 
usefod; for, between glory and lives; with, between principles and consis- 



The preposition and the noun form what is called an 

adjunct; thus, of vice is an adjunct to hatred; to John is an 

adjunct to useful; for glory, to lives; with his principles, to 
consistently. 

The words that modify the noun are considered as belonging to the ad- 
junct. In this sentence, " He lives in the greatest seclusion," in the greatest 
seclusion is an adjunct to lives. 

The same word may have several adjuncts ; thus, " The stream runs with 
rapidity past the house, under the fence, into the river ;" that is, 

fwith rapidity, 

[into the river, 



List of Prepositions. 



Abroad 

About 

Above 

According to 

Across 

After 

Against 

Along 

Amid > 

Amidst ) 

Among ) 

Amongst \ 

Around 

At 

Athwart 



Before 


For 


Throughout 


Behind 


From 


Till 


Below 


In, Into 


To 


Beneath 


Notwithstanding 


Touching 
Toward } 
Towards $ 


Beside } 
Besides £ 


Of 


Off 


Between 


On 


Under 


Betwixt 


Out of 


Underneath 


Beyond 


Over 


Until 


By 


Past 


Unto 


Concerning 


Regarding 


Up 


Down 


Respecting 


Upon 


During 


Round 


With 


Except 


Since 


■Within 


Excepting 


Through 


Without. 



What is a preposition? 
What do the preposition and the noun 
form? 



How many adjuncts may the same 
word have ? 
Repeat the list of prepositions. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remarks. 

According, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting and touch- 
ing were originally participles, and they may sometimes still be construed 
as such in those constractions in which they are usually regarded as prepo- 
sitions. Thus, in this sentence, " He lives according to nature," according 
may be considered a participle belonging to he. " He holds the property 
during life ;" here during may be regarded as a participle belonging to life in 
the nominative absolute— life during, that is, while life dures or continues. 

Notwithstanding consists of the abverb not and the participle xoithstand- 
ing, which may be construed like during. 

Except was originally a verb in the imperative mood ; thus, " They all 
perished except one ;" that is, take out one. The word save may also be 
parsed, either as a verb or a preposition. 

Some parse out of as two words — out as an adverb, and of as a preposition, 

But in the sense of except is sometimes used as a preposition ; as, 

"The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all buthim had fled." Hemans. 

Some would say but he, and if but were what it was originally — the im- 
perative mood, this construction would be correct ; he would be nominative to 
but. But to consider but a conjunction makes an awkward construction. 
""Whence all had fled, but he had not fled." Butan is sometimes a preposi- 
tion in Anglo-Saxon; as, •' Butan wifum and cildum," without or besides wo- 
men and children. Wifum and cildum are in the dative or ablative case. 

Some of the words in the list are not always prepositions. See list of 
words used as different parts of speech. 

When the objective case is omitted after prepositions, they are commonly 

called adverbs; thus " He returned from his journey, and died soon after ;" 

that is, after that time. 

" The king of France with forty thousand men 
Marched up a hill, and then marched down again;" 

That is, down the hill. 

EXERCISE 8. 

Between what words does each of the following prepositions 
show a relation? 

He went from Boston. He went to Philadelphia. He 
went from Boston to Philadelphia. He gave [to] me his 
book. He gave his book to me. That is pleasant to me. 
Walk in the path of virtue. John rode on the horse. George 

What prepositions were originally parti- When the objective case is omitted 
ciples? what is the preposition usually called? 

What is said of except and save?— of lut? 



ETYMOLOGY. 117 

is obedient to his parents. The love of money is the root of 
all evil. The book lies before him. The book lies on the 
table. The book lies before him on the table. He was my 
companion in adversity. In adversity he was my compan- 
ion. He was plunged into new difficulties by this impru- 
dence. By this imprudence he was plunged into new diffi- 
culties. Without the aid of charity, he supported himself 
with credit. Of his talents much might be said ; concerning 
his integrity, nothing. 

To parse a preposition, 

Tell 1. What part of speech it is — and why? 

1. Between what words it shows the relation. 
3. Rule, 

These sentences may now be parsed in full. 

MODEL. 

•' He went from Boston to Philadelphia." 
From, 
Is a preposition — it shows the relation between the noun Boston and the 
verb went. 

Rule. A preposition shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and 
some preceding word. 

. To, 
Is a preposition — it shows the relation between the noun Philadelphia 
and the verb went. 

Boston, — , 

Is a proper noun,~neuter gender, third person, singular, objective case- 
after the preposition from. 

Rule. The object of a preposition is put in the objective case. 



How do you parse a preposition? 



11 



118 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Adverb. 



An adverb is a word used to modify or limit the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; 
as, "He acts cautiously [f "He is remarkably cau- 
tious;" "He acts more cautiously." 

Remark 1 . An adverb is an abridged expression for an 
adjunct; thus, cautiously means in a cautious manner; remark- 
ably means in a remarkable degree; and more means in a 
greater degree. So, here is equivalent to in this place; there, 
to at that time, fyc. 

Remark 2. In general, we have adverbs for such adjuncts as would be 
most commonly used. Adverbs and adjuncts are often used indiscriminately 
to express the same modification. 

EXERCISES. 

Form sentences containing the following adverbs ; tell for 
what adjuncts the adverbs stand, and what words they modify. 

Justly, wisely, happily, diligently, agreeably, fashiona- 
bly, beautifully, attentively, sweetly, gloriously, skilfully, 
earnestly. 

Entirely, sufficiently,. totally, particularly, infinitely, nearly, 
almost, perfectly. 

Here, there, somewhere, anywhere, where, hither, thith- 
er, whence, whither. 

Now, then, when, to-day, anciently. 

Hitherto, henceforth, always, never. 



What is an adverb? For what kind of adjuncts are adverbs 

For what is an adverb an abridged ex- employed? 
presBion? 



ETYMOLOGY. 119 

Remark. 

1. Adverbs are generally used for those adjuncts only which are 
joined to verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; but they are sometimes used for 
those which are joined to nouns or pronouns ; as, "John saw him only." Here 
the adverb only does not modify the verb saw, but the pronoun him; that is, 
it is used instead of an adjunct to him — " John saw him, without any other 
person" 

2. In this sentence, " John only saw him," only modifies saw: the mean- 
ing is, John saw him, tvithout doing any thing else — without speaking to 
him, or xoithout hearing him. 

3. If we place the emphasis on John, only will modify John; thus, "John 
only saw him," means that John and no other person saw him, John without 
any other person. 

4. The adverbs used to qualify nouns, are chiefly those which may refer 
to the exclusion or addition of objects, such as chiefly, particularly, especially, 
entirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, partly, also, likewise. Thus, "He 
studies grammar chiefly" that is, grammar for the most part, grammar almost 
to the exclusion of other studies. " He studies geology, and grammar also;" 
that is, grammar in addition. 

5. Adverbs sometimes modify adjuncts; as, "He dwells far beyond St, 
Louis ;" " The steamboat starts long before noon." 

6. Some adjuncts in which the noun is omitted are called adverbial phra- 
ses; such are in short, in general, in vain, at most, at least, at all, on high. 

Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs may be divided into three classes. 

I. Adverbs o/\Place and Order ; as, here, there, where, 
yonder, elsewhere, anywhere, hence, hither, whence, whith- 
er, upward, downward, backward, first, secondly, thirdly. 

II. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, to-day, instantly, imme- 
diately, already, recently, since, before, ago, yesterday, 
hitherto, to-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, soon, always, 
ever, never, eternally, continually, often, again, frequently, 

In the place of what adjuncts are ad- What adverbs are chiefly used to modify 

verbs generally used? nouns? 

Are adverbs ever used in place of the Do adverbs sometimes modify ad- 
adjuncts to nouns? juncts? Give examples. 

In the sentence "John saw him only," What are adverbial phrases? 

what does the adverb only modify? In What three classes of adverbs are 

place of what adjunct is onZyused? there? 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sometimes, daily, hourly, once, twice, thrice, first, next, 
when, then, till, early, late. 

III. Adverbs o/Manner, Degree, &c; as, well, wisely, 
happily, justly, gloriously, slowly, prudently, bravely, much, 
too, very, greatly, highly, entirely, perfectly, excessively, 
enough, sufficiently, how, however, so, perhaps, possibly, 
yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, certainly, really, doubtless, 
indeed, why, wherefore, therefore, more, most, less, least, 
thus, as, no, not, nay. 

Remark 1. Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives by- 
adding- ly, for like, thus, just, justly, 

Remark 2, In general, when an adjective ends in 7^ no adverb is formed 
from it; but an adjunct is used to express the idea; thus, "He acted in a manly 
manner," not manlily. 

Remark 3. Nay, no, and not are called ne gative adverbs; nay is nearly- 
obsolete ; no is generally used to denote denial, in the answer to a question, 
and seems to stand for not and the sentence contained in the question, the 
necessary changes for person, &c. being made. Thus, "Will you go ?" "No;" 
that is, I will not go. It may be considered simply as used for not, the rest of 
the sentence being understood. 

Yes is generally used to denote assent in the answer to a question, and may 
be considered as modifying some word in a manner similar to no. 

Remark 4. Here, there, and where are sometimes compounded with pre- 
positions to form other adverbs ; as, hereby, thereby, tvhereby, therefore (there- 
for), wherefore^ whereioith, therewith. 

Remark 5. Therefore, wherefore, and also are sometimes called con- 
junctions; but they are evidently adverbs : they are used for the adjuncts, 
for the reason, for which reason, in addition. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Some adverbs stand for two adjuncts, one of which con- 
tains a relative pronoun, and the other the antecedent : these 
are called conjunctive adverbs. 



Mention some adverbs of place and When the adjective ends in ly, how is 
order — of time— of manner, degree, &c. the idea expressed? 

What are negative adverbs? 

How are adverbs of manner generally How is no used?— yes? 
formed ? Of what is the termination ly, What is said of here, there, and where? 
in such cases, a contraction? What are conjunctive adverbs? 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 

Thus, " I shall see you when you come ;" that is, at the time at which you 
come. " He will remain while you are absent ;" that is, during the time dur- 
ing zvhich you are absent. "The book is not where I left it ;" that is, in the 
place in which I left it. 

Remark 1. It would seem that each of these adverbs modifies two 
words ; the adjunct containing the antecedent modifies one, and that contain- 
ing the relative modifies the other. Thus, in the first example, when modifies 
shall see and come. 

Remark 2. In reality, these words are like the relative with the antece- 
dent omitted ; the antecedent adverb or adjunct being omitted. Thus, the first 
example is equivalent to " I shall see you then, or at the time when you 
come." 

" It placed was 
There where the mouldered earth had caved the bank." Spenser. 

" Before I go whence I shall not return," is equivalent to. " Before I go to 
the place whence, ox from which I shall not return." " When a few years are 
-come, then I shall go the way lohence I shall not return." Bible. 

Remark 3. The words which are used as conjunctive adverbs, are such 
as when, where, while, whither, whence. 

Remark 4. These words are not always conjunctive adverbs; some of 
them are sometimes used instead of adjuncts containing interrogative pro- 
nouns ; as, " When (at what time) will he come ?" So in indirect questions ; 
as, " Tell me when (at tvhat time) he will come." 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est ; as, 
soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest ; fast, faster, 
fastest. 

The following are irregularly compared : badly or ill, wo*s.e, worst; far, 
farther, farthest; little, less, least; much, more, most; well, better, best. 

Most adverbs of manner may be compared by means of the adverbs more 
and most; as, cautiously, more cautiously, most cautiously; that is, cautiously 
in a higher degree, cautiously in the highest degree. 



What do conjunctive adverbs modify 1 ? Tn what other way are they sometimes 

In the sentence, "I shall see you when used? 

you come," what does when modify? How are adverbs compared? 

What part of speech do the conjunc- Which are irregularly compared? 

tive adverbs resemble? How can most adverbs of manner be 

What words are used as conjunctive compared? 
adverbs? 



122 english grammar. 

Parsing Exercises. 

He acts justly. He behaved badly. God is present 
everywhere. Come hither. He is a truly great man. 
Beasts should be kindly treated. Be more cautious. Act 
more wisely. 

The Peri yet may be forgiven, 
Who brings to this eternal gate 
The gift that is most dear to Heaven. 

I have seen him often. Vice may be seen too often. He 

writes very rapidly. The wicked walk on every side, when 

the vilest men are exalted. 

He passed where Newark's stately tower 
Looks out from Yarrow's birchen bower. 

Catch the manners living as they rise. Live while you 
live. Improve time as it flies. 

Him to unthrone 
We then may hope, when everlasting Fate 
Shall yield to fickle Chance. 

To parse an adverb. 
Tell 1. What part of speech it is — and why? 

2. What does it modify? 

3. Rule. 

It is also well to mention the adjunct in place of which the 
adverb is used. 

MODEL. 

" He acts justly." 



Is an adverb — -it is used instead of the adjunct, " in a just manner," and it 
modifies the verb acts. 

Rule. Adverbs modify verbs. 



How do you parse an adverb 1 



ETYMOLOGY. 123 

" He is a truly great man," 
Truly, 
Is an adverb— it is used instead of the adjunct, " in truth." and it modifies 
the adjective great. 

Rule. Adverbs modify adjectives. 

" Catch the manners living as they rise." 
As, 
Is a conjunctive adverb — it stands for two adjuncts, " at the time," and 
" in which," and modifies catch and rise. 
Rule. Adverbs modify verbs. 



Conjunction. 

A conjunction is a word which connects words 
or propositions ; as, "John and James are happy, 
because they are good." 

Here and connects the words John and James, and because connects the 
propositions or clauses "John and James are happy," and " they are good." 

Conjunctions are usually divided into two classes — copu- 
lative and disjunctive. 

The principal copulative conjunctions are: and, both, as, 
because, for, if, since, that. 

And is used to connect something as an addition to what precedes ; the 
others principally serve to connect to the leading proposition another which 
expresses a supposition, cause, result, fyc Both is used with and to mark 
the connection more forcibly. 

And is properly the copulative conjunction. The princi- 
pal disjunctive conjunctions are or, either, nor, neither, than, 
though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, notwith- 
standing. 



What is a conjunction? Mention the principal copulative con- 

How are conjunctions classed? junctions. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Or is used to connect something as an alternative to what precedes ; the 
others principally serve to connect to the leading proposition another which 
expresses a concession, a doubt, or something opposed to what is expressed 
in the leading proposition. Either is used with or as both is with and ; nor 
and neither are negative. 

EXERCISES. 
What does each of the following conjunctions connect? 
Peter and John went to the temple. Virtue is praised 
and neglected. The moon and stars were shining. You 
M'ill be despised, and he will be honored. You must labor if 
you would succeed. If you would succeed, you must labor. 
George and James will go. George or James will go. Both 
George and James will go. Either George or James will go. 
Neither George nor James will go. He was poor though he 
he might have been rich. He was poor, but he might have 
been rich. He was poor, yet he might have been rich. He 
was poor, notwithstanding he might have been rich. Wis- 
dom is better than riches (are). Tell me whether you will 
go or stay. 

To parse a conjunction, 

Tell 1. What part of speech it is. 

2. What words or propositions does it connect? 

3. Rule. 

Parsing Exercises. 

[The preceding exercises may be parsed in full.] 

MODEL. 

"Peter and John went to the temple." 
And, 
Is a conjunction — it connects Peter and John. 
Rule. Conjunctions connect words. 

" You will be despised, and he will be honored." 
And, 
Is a conjunction — it connects the two propositions, "You will be despised," 
and " he will be honored." 

Rule. Conjunctions connect propositions. 



How do you parse a conjunction; 



ETYMOLOGY. J25 



Interjection. 

An interjection is a word used in exclamation, 
to express some strong or sudden emotion; as, 
"Oh! what a fall was there!" 

List of Interjections. 

The following are some of the principal interjections: Ah! alas! oh! 
ha! O! fudge! pish, tush! pshaw! poh! pugh! fie! avaunt! ho! holla! 
aha! huzza! hurrah! welcome! hail! all-hail! ho! hush! hist! heighho! 
heydey! bravo! adieu! 

Some words belonging to other classes are called interjections when 
uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner; as, Strange! wonderful! 
what! behold! off ! away! wo! 

Parsing Exercises. 

He died, alas ! in early youth. Ah ! then and there was 
hurrying to and fro. Oh ! make her a grave where the sun- 
beams rest. 

Alas ! when evil men are strong, 

No life is good, no pleasm*e long. 

To parse an interjection, 
Tell 1. What part of speech — and why?~~ 
2. Rule. 

MODEL. 

" He died, alas ! in early youth." 
Alas, 
Is an interjection — it is used in exclamation, to denote a strong emotion ; 
it has no grammatical connection with any other word. 

Rule. Interjections have no grammatical connection with other words. 



What is an interjection'? When are other parts of speech used 

Name some interjections. as interjections? 

How do you parse an interjection? 

12 



126 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Words belonging to different Classes. 

Many words belong to different classes ; thus, iron may be eitber a noun, 
or a verb, or an adjective; as, " Iron is a hard metal ;" " To iron clothes ;" 
" An iron rod." 

Some of the words commonly employed as different parts of speech are 
here mentioned. 

Much is used 1. As an adverb — " You 
have your mother much offended." 

2. As an adjective — "I have taken 
much pains." 

3. As a noun — " Where much is giv- 
en, much is required." 

Since is used 1. As a preposition— " Since 
that time." 

2. As a conjunction — "I will go, 
since you desire it." 

3. As an adverb— " I saw him long 
since." 

But is used 1. As a conjunction — " He 
is sick, but you are well." 

2. As a preposition — "All but him 
had fled." 

3. As an adverb— "We are but (only) 
of yesterday." 

After is used 1. As a preposition—" 1 After 
that time." 

2. As an adverb— ■" After I had seen 
him." 

So before, below, above, tyc. 
Notwithstanding is used 1. As a preposi- 
tion — "Notwithstanding his merit." 

2. As a conjunction— "He is respect- 
ed, notwithstanding he is poor." 
That is used ] . As an adjective —"Give 
me that book." 



2. As a pronoun — "The child that 
was sick." 

3. As a conjunction — "I tell you that 
you must try." 

As is used 1. As an adverb — "He acted as 
he was directed." 

2. As a conjunction — " As (since) you 
have requested me, I will do so." 

3. Asa pronoun — " Such as should 
be saved." 

For is used 1. As & preposition — "This is 
good for us." 

2. As a conjunction — "Love God, for 
he loves you." 
The is used 1. As a limiting adjective (or 
article) — " The man." 

2. As an adverb — u The wiser he is, 
the better he is." 
What is used 1. As a relative pronoun — 
" He got what he wanted." 

2. As a limiting adjective — "What 
man is there V 

3. As an adverb—"' What (partly) by 
entreaty, and what by threatening, I 
succeeded." 

6. As an interjection — "Wliat! war- 
der, ho!" 



Remarks. 



1. But is an adverb when only may be used in its place ; as, " Our light 
affliction, which is but (only) for a moment." But has been made to assume 
this meaning by the omission of the negative which was originally used with 
it ; thus, " Our light affliction, which is not but (except J for a moment." 



Does the same word ever belong to dif- 
ferent classes? Give examples. 

Mention the different classes in which 
the following words are used, aud give 



examples of each: Much, since, but, after, 
notwithstanding, that, as, for, the, what. 
When is but an adverb? 



ETYMOLOGY. 127 

2. Some grammarians assert that that, in all those cases in which it is 
supposed to be a conjunction, is merely a pronoun, standing for a sentence or 
part of a sentence ; or rather a limiting adjective. This sentence, " I wish 
you to believe that I would not willingly hurt a fly," is resolved thus, " I 
would not willingly hurt a fly; I wish you. to believe that [assertion];" "I 
wish you to believe that [assertion] I would not willingly hurt a fly." 

That in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, 
to take, to assume; but the derivation, and the ancient mode of using a word, 
do not always show how it is used at present, though a knowledge of them 
may be useful for this purpose, and may show how present usage originated. 
That, as a conjunction, is merely a connective, or if the expression may be 
allowed, an introduction to a clause, and does not refer to assertion, or fact, 
fyc. The following are correct English sentences : " I wish you to believe 
this assertion, that I would not willingly hurt a fly." How would a sentence 
of this kind appear when resolved in the mode adopted by Home Tooke and 
others? " I wish you to believe this assertion, that [assertion] — I would not 
willingly hurt a fly." 

3. In such sentences as the following, so and as are usually considered 
conjunctions : She is as amiable as her sister ;" "As two are to four, so are six 
to twelve ;" " No lamb was e'er so mild as he ;" " He acted as he was direct- 
ed." But in all these sentences as and so are adverbs, being used instead of 
adjuncts. Thus, " She is\ amiable in the same degree in ivhich her sister is ;" 
" Six are to twelve in the proportion in tohich two are to four ;" " No lamb 
was e'er mild in the degree in xohich he is," As, in the last sentence, is a con- 
junctive adverb ; thus, " He acted in the manner in which he was directed 
to act. 



What is said of so and 



SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the arrangement of words in 
propositions, and their relation to each other. 

A proposition consists of a subject and a 'pre- 
dicate. 

The subject of a proposition is that of which 
something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject. 

Thus, "John runs." Here John is the subject, and runs is the predicate. 

Note 1. The word affirm must he understood to include interrogations, 
commands, fyc. 

Note 2. The name of the ohject addressed does not form a part of the 
proposition ; thus, " William, John runs." 

Note 3. In interrogations, the subject often comes after the verb ; thus, 
" What says the 'preacherV 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
propositions. 

Peter jumps. God exists. Virtue will triumph. I can 
write. Children play. Children love to play. Vice is per- 
nicious. He is happy. Happy is he. Diana is great. Great 
is Diana. Blessed are peacemakers. Gratiano has gone 
along with him. With him has Gratiano gone along. In 
their ship Lorenzo is not. What is man? Who art thou? 
Where is John? Whither art thou going? Is happiness to 
be found among men? 

Of what does Syntax treat ? What is the subject of a proposition?— 

Of what does a proposition consist? the predicate? 



SYNTAX. 129 

Go thou. Go in peace. Study thou thy lesson. Study 
thy lesson. Stay with me." Love virtue. Honor thy father 
and thy mother. 

2. Form a 'predicate for each of the following subjects, 

George. Virtue. Industry. Happiness. Rain. Grass. 
Horses. Religion. Birds. Knowledge. 

Subject. 

I. The subject is either grammatical or logical. 

The grammatical subject is either a noun, or some word 
standing for a noun. The logical subject consists of the 
grammatical subject, with its various modifications. 

Thus, " The consciousness of a well spent life is pleasant. Here conscious- 
ness is the grammatical, and the consciousness of a well spent life the 
logical subject. 

If the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same as the logical 
subject. 

Thus, in the proposition, "John runs," John is both the grammatical and 
logical subject. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the grammatical, and logical subjects in the following 
propositions. 

Ripe peaches are excellent. The love of virtue is com- 
mendable. A beautiful prospect is admired. Unripe apples 
are not wholesome. Wise men avoid temptation. Thomas 
will study his lesson. All boys do not study. All good boys 
study. Men often do wrong. Great men often do wrong. 
Great and virtuous men often do wrong. Man sins. The 
man sins. A man sins. That man is wicked. No man is 
perfect. 

Thus lived and died Alexander the Great. Beautiful are 
the lofty trees of that extensive forest. Gloomy and dark 

How many kinds of subjects? What is the grammatical subject?— the logical? 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

art thou. Now heaves the enraptured breast with strong 
emotion. 

II. The subject is also either simple or compound. A 
simple subject is a simple noun, or word standing for a 
noun, either alone or variously modified ; as, "Life is short ;" 
'* The longest life of man is short." 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects to which one predicate belongs ; as,"TAe moon and stars 
shone ;" " Two and three make five ;" " This most excellent 
man, and that consummate villain, were born in London." 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Tell whether the subject in each of the following proposi- 
tions is simple or compound. 

Virtue is often neglected. The most exalted virtue is 
often neglected. Virtue and vice are often treated alike. 
Socrates, the philosopher and friend of his country, was 
condemned to death. Socrates, the philosopher, and Cicero, 
the friend of his country, were condemned to death. You 
and I will go together. What goodly virtues bloom on the 
poisonous branches of ambition ! Your servants, the accu- 
sers of my son, behaved improperly. The generous Valdez, 
and my Lord Ordonio, have arm and will to aid the noble 
sufferer. A storm of wind and rain arose. 

Among the disciples of Zeno may be mentioned Perseus, 
Aristo the Chian, Herillus, and Sphaerus. Then rushed the 
steeds to battle driven. Furious Frank and fiery Hun shout 
in their sulphurous canopy. 

What have John and James done? What are men and 
angels compared to thee? What harm has that great and 
good man done? 

What is a simple subject?— a compound? 



SYNTAX. 131 

2. Form three sentences with a simple, and three with a 
compound subject. 

Modified Subject. 

Words are said to modify or limit others, when they 
serve to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise 
qualify their meaning. 

A grammatical subject may be modified or limited in dif- 
ferent ways : 

1. By a noun, in the same case, annexed to it for the sake 
of explanation or description ; as, " John the Baptist came." 

2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 
"Milton's writings are sublime ;" "My brother is here." 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " The love of learning is com- 
mendable." 

4. By an adjective or participle; z.s,"Envious time flies;" 
"The flowers fade;" "All men die;" "A horse neighs ;" "He, 
shouting, made the onset." 

5. By a relative pronoun, and the words connected with 
it — (a relative clause) ; as, " The boy who studies will im- 
prove." 

6. By an infinitive ; as, " A desire to learn is praise- 
worthy." 

7. By an entire clause ; as, "A belief that God is merci- 
ful affords consolation." 

Remark. A noun may be modified in any of the ways above mentioned, 
even when it is not the grammatical subject; as, "John the Baptist." Here 
Baptist is modified by the. " The love of sound learning is commendable." 
Here learning is modified by sound. " I know his devotion to the study of 
the works of nature." Here devotion is modified by the adjunct, to the study; 
study is modified by of the works; and works, by of nature. 



When are words said to modify or lim- matical subject may be modified? — the 
it others? second?— the third?— the fourth? — the 

What is the first way in which a gram- fifth ?— the sixth?— the seventh ? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






EXERCISES. 

What is the logical subject in each of the following proposi- 
tions? — the grammatical? By what is the grammatical subject 
modified? Is the subject simple or compound? 

1. Nero the tyrant was hated. Cicero the orator was 
slain. Xenophon the historian was a disciple of Socrates. 
I John saw these things. We Christians are favored. 

2. Bonaparte's energy was remarkable. Peter's Book is 
torn. John's pen is spoiled. Plato's works are written in 
Greek. My knife is sharp. Your opinion is correct. His 
imagination is lively. Their wants are great. 

3. The love of money is the root of all evil. Beauty of 
form should not excite pride. Vulgarity in conversation is 
ungentlemanly. The voice of truth will be heard. The wish 
for happiness is general. Slaves to sin are miserable. The 
night after the battle was dark. A river in France is called 
the Seine. The men of pure heart shall see God. The hope 
of better things cheers us. The dominion of unbridled appe- 
tites must cease. 

4. Envious men are wretched. The longest life of man 
is short. The afflicted nation mourns. Short pleasure pro- 
duces long pain. Then rose the wise Nestor. Vain are 
his fondest hopes. Short is our earthly life. Then rushed 
the steed to battle driven. Far flashed the red artillery. 

5. He who does no good does harm. The lady who 
gave me that book, is my friend. The bird which you saw 
flew away. The child, to whom you gave the toy, loves you. 
Many men, whom indolence has sunk into obscurity, might 
have become eminent. He, who disobeys the commands of 
God, will meet with certain punishment. 

6. The time to study has arrived. A wish to be dis- 
tinguished is manifest in him. An opportunity to go is pre- 
sented. 



SYNTAX. !33 

7. A wish that he would consent was expressed. An 
assurance that he would come was given. 

Modified Adjective, Adverb, &c. 

An adjective modifying a noun may itself be modified : 

1. By an adjunct ; as, "A pen is useful for writing. 

2. By an adverb ; as, " That very large tree has fallen." 

3. By an infinitive ; as, " He is ready to go. 

An adverb may be modified : 

1. By another adverb ; as, "More openly." 

2. By an adjunct ; as, "Agreeably to nature." 

A modified grammatical subject, considered as one com- 
plex idea, may itself be modified , as, "All bad books are 
pernicious;" "The first two verses, were sung." 

All modifies not books alone, but the complex idea bad 
books; first modifies two verses. 

EXERCISES. 

1. By what are the adjectives modified in the following pro' 
positions. 

Ajax was mighty in arms. He led a veryumhappy life. 
That poem is exceedingly beautiful. Demosthenes was 
superior to iEschines in eloquence. John is ready to recite. 
He was extremely idle. This is wonderful to be related. 

2. By what are the adverbs in the following propositions 
modifiedl 

He was very highly esteemed. He was most ardently 
devoted to study. James is much more happy now. That 



What is the first way in which an ad- How may an adverb be modified ? 
jectiv.e may be modified?— the second?— What does all modify in this sentence, 
the third? "All bad books are pernicious?" 






134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

book was published very recently. William studies best of 
all. He returned long before night. 

3. How is the grammatical subject in the following propo- 
sitions modified] 

All bad men will be punished. All good boys love their 
parents. All men of integrity are respected. The black dog 
bites. 

Infinitives, &c. as Subjects. 

An infinitive, a participle used as a noun, or an entire 
clause, may be the subject of a proposition ; as, "To lie is 
base ;" "Lying is base ;" "That men should lie is base." 

So also a clause, consisting of an infinitive, with its sub- 
ject in the objective, preceded by for; as, "For men to lie is 
base." 

The verbs and participial nouns in such cases may be modified like the 
verb of a predicate. See the article "Modified Predicate:' Thus, " To hate our 
enemies is forbidden." 

The infinitive mood, the participial noun, the finite verb* with its subject 
and the infinitive with its subject in the objective, may be considered the 
grammatical subjects. That and for may be considered as belonging to the 
subject. 

In such cases, when the subject comes after the predicate, the pronoun it 
is used ; as, u It is base that men should lie." 

In this and similar propositions, the word it is not the subject; it serves 
only to introduce the sentence in a particular manner. 

The word there is often used to introduce a sentence, when the subject 
comes after the predicate ; as, " There are five men here." 

Note. In the following pages, when the term subject alone is used, the 
grammatical subject is intended. 



Whatis the subject of the proposition, What purpose does the pronoun it 

'■ To he is base?"— of « Lying is base?" serve in such sentences as this " It is 

—of " That men should lie is base?"— of base that men should he *" 

" For men to lie is base?" How is there often used ? 



* Any verb, not in the infinitive mood, is called a finite veib. 



SYNTAX. 135 

EXERCISES. 
Name the subject and predicate in each of the following pro- 
positions. 

To be good is to be happy. To know is to be powerful. 
To be here is good. It is good to be here. That we should 
be here is good, It is good that we should be here. To 
study strengthens the mind. It strengthens the mind to 
study. It alarmed her to see the soldiers. " Know thyself," 
is a saying of one of the wise men of Greece. 

Four boys are in this class. There are four boys in this 
class. A large number was present. There was a large num- 
ber present. There were five loaves in the basket. 

Predicate. 

I. The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical 
or logical. 

The grammatical predicate is a verb. The logical predi- 
cate consists of the grammatical predicate with its various 
modifications. 

Thus, " Scipio routed ilieforces of Hannibal." Here, routed is the gram- 
matical, and routed the forces of Hannibal the logical predicate. 

Note. If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as the 
logical. 

EXERCISES. 
Name the logical and grammatical predicates ul each of the 
following propositions, 

Cicero delivered four orations against Cataline. James 
was expelled from his kingdom. William the Conqueror 
governed England. John preached in the wilderness. The 
sentinel stars set their watch in the skies. Washington was 
called tho Father of his Country. John walks slowly. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is also either simple 
or compound. 

What is the grammatical predicate? What is the logical predicate? 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite 
verb ; as, " Pleasure is brief;'" " They are scattered in Europe, 
Asia, Africa, and America" 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates belonging to the same subject ; as, " He laughs 
and weeps" 

EXERCISES. 

Is the predicate in each of the following propositions simple 
or compound? 

John desires to learn. The devils believe and tremble. 
They were commanded to return to their own country. The 
bird chirps and sings. Honesty is praised and [is] neglected. 
He was attacked and [was] slain. The houses were plun- 
dered and burned. He left his home and went to a foreign 
land. He comes in the roar of a thousand storms, and scat- 
ters battle from his eyes. High on a throne of royal state, 
Satan exalted sat. 

Modified Predicate. 

A grammatical predicate may be modified, or limited, in 
different ways : 

1. By a noun, or pronoun, in the same case as the sub- 
ject ; as, "He was called John;" "She moves* goddess-" 
" It is he." 

2. By a noun, or pronoun, in the objective case ; as, 
" John struck Alfred;" " I saw them." 

3. By an adjective, referring to the subject; as, " Aris- 
tides was called just" 

4. By an adjunct ; as, " William spoke to Thomas. 

5. By an adverb ; as, " George learns rapidly." 

6. By an infinitive ; as, James wishes to learn." 

7. By a dependent clause ; as, " James wishes that you 
should learn ;" " James wishes you to learn" 



What is a simple predicate?— a compound predicate? 

What is the first way in which a grammatical predicate may be modified?— the 
second?- tbe third ?-the fourth '-the fifth ?-the sixth?-the seventh? 



SYNTAX. 137 

Remark 1. An infinitive or participle may be modified like the verb of a 
predicate. 

Remark 2. All other words used to modify verbs, may themselves be 
modified, in the ways mentioned under the article "Modified subject." 

EXERCISES. 

How is the grammatical predicate in each of the following 
propositions modified. 

1. She is a queen. She walks a queen. -He is an orator. 
He is considered a poet. Washington was elected Presi- 
dent of the United States. 

2. The Duke of Wellington defeated Bonaparte. God 
governs the world. Virtue bestows tranquillity. Labor con- 
quers all things. Him I know. That man I have never seen 
before. 

3. He is proud. You are happy. He is fond of novelty. 
You are too eager in the pursuit of riches. 

4. Bonaparte marched into Russia. He came to the 
city. Pompey was defeated by Caesar. He walks with a 
staff. 

5. The evening fled, swiftly. The sun shines beautifully. 
The grass grows rapidly. He studies diligently. 

6. I desire to see him. He labors to do good. William 
has determined to go. He strives to excel. 

7 I wish that he may be chosen. I hope that you may 
be happy. I confess that I am in fault. I believe that he 
is a good man. I believe him to be a good man. 

Sentences. 

A sentence may consist either of one proposition, or of 
two or more propositions connected together. 



How may an infinitive or participle be Of what does a sentence consist? 
modified ? 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a simple 
sentence. 

A sentence consisting of two or more propositions is cal- 
led a compound sentence, and the propositions of which it is 
composed are called members or clauses. 

Thus, " Phocion was poor," is a simple sentence ; " Phocion was poor, 
though he might have been rich," is a compound sentence. In this compound 
sentence, " Phocion was poor," and " he might have been rich;" are members 
or clauses. 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following sentences are simple, and which com- 
pound ? 

Age increases the desire of living. Age increases the de- 
sire of living, though it lessens the enjoyments of life. Age, 
though it lessens the enjoyments of life, increases the desire 
of living. He will not be pardoned, unless he repent. They 
all slumbered while the bridegroom tarried. While the bride- 
groom tarried, they all slumbered. John's devotion to study, 
and his blameless conduct, commanded the approbation of all. 
I will go, if you command me. 

Independent and Dependent Clauses. 

The members of a compound sentence are either inde- 
pendent or dependent. 

An independent, clause is one which makes complete sense 
by itself. A dependent clause is one which makes complete 
sense only in connection with other clauses. 

Thus, " That man is happy, though he is affected with disease." Here the 
former clause is independent, the latter dependent. 

Remark. And connects propositions of the same kind, either independent 
or dependent; as, " The winds subside, and the clouds disperse." So also 
the negatives neither and nor; (equivalent to and not) ; as, " The winds did 
not subside, nor did the clouds disperse." 



What is a simple sentence? What is an independent clause?— a de- 

What is a compound sentence 1 pendent ? 



SYNTAX. 239 

That member of a compound sentence on which the other 
members depend, is called the leading clause; its subject, the 
leading subject; and its verb, the leading verb. 

EXERCISES. , 
Which are independent and which dependent clauses in the 
following sentences? Which are the leading subjects and which 
the leading verbs? 

You will suffer, if you sin. If you sin, you will suffer. 
The wicked flee, when no man pursues. I am saddest when 
I sing. When I sing I am saddest. He will be ruined, un- 
less he change his course. Unless he change his course, 
he will be ruined. I did not see him till he had spo- 
ken. No man can say that he is dishonest. I will not be- 
lieve that he is dishonest. That he is dishonest, I will not 
believe. 

Connection of Clauses. 

The members of a compound sentence may be connected 
by relatives, conjunctions, or adverbs. 

Thus, " He is respected by all who know him;" " He fled when danger 
appeared •" "You say that he is honest." In the first sentence, the relative 
who, besides being the subject of the verb know, connects the clause to which 
it belongs to the leading clause ; in the second sentence, the adverb token con- 
nects the clauses ; in the third, the conjunction that. 

An infinitive with its subject may be united to another 
clause without a connective; as, '» I believe John to be hon- 
est ," that is, " I believe that John is honest." 

The connecting word is sometimes omitted ; as, " This 
is the man I saw ;" "Thou canst not say I did it." Whom 
is omitted in the former sentence, and that in the latter. 

Instead of a dependent clause connected by a conjunction, 
a noun and a participle sometimes stand as an abridged pro- 
How may the members of a compound Is the connecting word always ex 
sentence be connected? pressed? 

What may be united to another clause What sometimes stands as an abridg- 
without a connective? ed proposition? 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

position ; as, " The enemy having been subdued, he depart- 
ed ;" that is, when the enemy had been subdued. 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Name the connecting words in the last exercises. 

2. What connecting words are omitted in the following 
sentences? 

I am sure he was there. He took all he could find. I 
would have spoken to him, had I seen him. Had I seen him, 
I would have spoken to him. He is the best musician I ever 
heard. 

Explanation of Terms. 

Agreement is the correspondence of one word with ano- 
ther in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is the influence of one word upon the case 
of another. 

A word is said to depend on another, when its case, gen- 
der, number, mood, tense, or person, is determined by that 
word. 

A word is said to follow another, when it depends upon 
it in construction, whatever may be its position in the pro- 
position. 



Rules of Syntax. 
i. 
A noun or pronoun, annexed to another noun 
or pronoun, for the sake of explanation or empha- 
sis, is put in the same case. 

What is agreement? — goverment? When is a word said to follow ano- 

When is a word said to depend on ano- ther ? 
ther? 



SYNTAX. 141 

II. 

Adjectives and participles belong to nouns or 

pronouns. 

in. 

Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they 
stand in gender, number, and person. 

IV. 

The noun or pronoun, which is the subject of a 
finite verb, is put in the nominative case. 

v. 

A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

VI. 

A noun or pronoun, in the predicate, after an 
intransitive or passive verb, is put in the same case 
as the subject, when it denotes the same person 
or thing. 

VII 

The nominative case is sometimes used without 
a verb. 

VIII. 

The possessive case is placed before ihe name 
of the object possessed. 

IX. 

The object of a transitive verb is put in the 

objective case. 

z. 

Prepositions are followed by the objective case. 

XI. 

The infinitive sometimes has a subject in the 
objective. 

13 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

XII. 

The infinitive mood may depend on a verb, an 
adjective, or a noun. 

XIII. 

Participles are modified in the same way as 
their verbs are. 

XIV. 

A preposition shows the relation between a 
noun or pronoun and some preceding word. 

xv. 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

XVI. 

Conjunctions connect words and propositions. 

XVII. 

Interjections have no grammatical connection 
with other words. 

Rule I. 
A noun or pronoun, annexed to another noun or 
pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis, 
is put in the same case; as, 

"Paul, an apostle;" " The city, Rome;" " We, men, are mortal;" " These 
words were spoken to us, men;" " Brutus killed Ccesar, Mm who had heen 
his friend." 

Remark 1. The annexed word is said to he in apposition with the other. 

Remark 2. The noun is sometimes repeated, for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, "Company, villainous company, hath heen the spoil of me." Shakspeare. 

Remark 3. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and a 
sentence in apposition with a noun ; as, "He recovered, a result which was 
not expected ;" " This truth once known — to bless is to be blessed." 

Remark 4. The proper name of a place, instead of heing put in apposi- 
tion with the preceding common noun, is generally preceded by the preposi- 



SYNTAX. 143 

tion of; as, " The city of Rome;" " The state of Ohio." The same construc- 
tion occurs with titles, &c. ; as, " He has the title of King." 

Remark 5. The explanatory word is sometimes placed before the word 

with which it is in apposition ; as, 

" Poor wanderers of a stormy day, 

From wave to wave we 're driven." T. Moore. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. 
Romulus, the founder of Rome, killed his brother, Remus. 
Stephen, the martyr, was stoned. The lips of Isaiah, the 
prophet, were touched with fire. 

This book belongs to my friend Thompson, him who was 

with me yesterday. 

The night's long hours still find me thinking 
Of thee, thee, only thee. 

Model. Support is a common noun, &c. ; in the nominative case — be- 
cause religion is, with which it is in apposition ; according to Rule 1. "A noun 
or pronoun, fyc. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. This is 
my cousin, her who lives in New-York. Will you act thus 
towards me, I who have so often assisted you? 

Rule II. — 

Adjectives and participles belong to nouns or 
pronouns. 

Note. This rule includes articles, and those adjectives which are some- 
times called adjective pronouns. 

Remark 1. Anything used as a noun — an infinitive, a participle [partici- 
pial noun], or a whole clause, may have adjectives belonging to it; as, "To 
die for our country is glorious;" "Learning languages is difficult ;" " That 
any man should be so foolish is surprising.''' 

Remark 2. An adjective, in connection with an infinitive, or a participial 
noun, is often used without reference to any particular object, to denote an 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

abstract idea; as, "To do good is to be happy" (that is, goodness ia happi- 
ness;) " Virtue consists, not in appearing good, but in being good." 

Remark 3. The noun is often omitted ; thus, " The wicked [persons] "per- 
secute the good [persons] ;" " Some [books] of these books are worthless ;" 
" Judas was one of the twelve [apostles] ;" "Each [person] has his faults." 

Remark 4. An adjective, generally in conection with the, is often used 
in the sense of an abstract noun; as. " He has an eye for the beautiful in na- 
ture and art ;" " I am fond of green." 

Remark 5. Participles sometimes refer to some indefinite word, which is 
omitted; as, "Granting this to be true, what is the inference?" that is, toe 
'granting. 

Remark 6. («) When the comparative degree is used, 
the two objects, or classes of objects compared, are repre- 
sented as distinct from each other ; as, " Wisdom is better 
than jewels*." It would not be correct to say, " Solomon was 
wiser than the Hebrew kings," because Solomon was one of 
those kings. 

(b) When the superlative is used, the objects compared 
are represented as belonging to the same class : if several 
classes are compared, they are represented as included in 
some larger class. Thus, " Solomon was the wisest of the 
Hebrew kings." It would not be correct to say, " Solomon 
was the wisest of the Roman kings," because he was not one 
of those kings. 

It is not correct to say, '• Eve was the fairest of her daughters," nor " Eve 
was fairer than any woman," because the former expression represents Eve 
as one of her own daughters, and the latter excludes her from the class of 
women. 

To express Eve's superiority, we may say, "Eve was the fairest of wo- 
men," or, "Eve was fairer than any other woman." The word other separates 
Eve and other women into two classes : Eve was not one of the other women. 

Remark 7. The comparative is used in the manner of the 
superlative, when two of the same class are compared ; as, 
" John is the wiser of the two." We sometimes, however, 
say, " the wisest of the two." 

Remark 8. Double comparatives and superlatives should 



SYNTAX. 145 

be avoided ; as, " more wiser, lesser, worser, most straitest. 
But lesser in some cases is used ; as, " The lesser Asia." 

Remark 9. This and that refer to singular nouns, and 
these and those to plural nouns ; as, that kind, those kinds. 

Remark 10. When objects are contrasted, that and those refer to the 
first mentioned, this and these to the last ; as, " Virtue and vice are as oppo- 
site to each other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the mind, this deba- 
ses it." 

Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 

My peace with these, my love with those ! Burns. 

Remark 11. This here and that there are vulgarisms which should be 
avoided. 

., Remark 12. The pronoun them should not be used instead of the adjec- 
tive those ; as, " them books." 

Remark 13. Singular nouns aire sometimes improperly used with numer- 
al adjectives which denote more than one ; as "Twenty pound." 

Yet such expressions as twenty head of cattle, a hundred yoke of oxen, 
ten sail of vessels are authorized. 

Remark 14. Each, every, either, neither, always refer to 

nouns in the third person singular ; and verbs and pronouns 

referring to them should, consequently, be in the third person 

singular; as, " Each [person] of you has his faults," — not, 

have your faults." 

But such expressions as every three weeks are correct because the whole 
is taken as one portion of time, 

Remark 15. Either and neither cannot properly be applied to more than 
two objects. "Either of the three''' should be "Any one of the three ;" and 
"Neither of the three," should be "None of the three." 

Dr. Webster says that neither " by usage is applicable to any number, re- 
ferring to individuals separately considered." 

Note. For the rules concerning the use of the article, see Etymology. 

Remark 16. After some verbs, particularly after certain intransitive verbs, 
it is often difficult to decide whether adjectives or adverbs should be used. 
After to be, or become, it is easy to see that the word should be an adjective, 
and not an adverb ; but when other verbs are employed, it is more difficult 
te decide. 

The following directions will enable us to decide correctly in most in- 
stances : 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(1.) The adverb should not be used, if the corresponding adjunct will not 
convey the intended idea. 

(2.) When the verb to be, and the verb to become can be substituted for 
any other, without materially changing the sense, or the construction, that 
other verb must be connected with an adjective, and not with an adverb. 

Thus, " The rose smells sweet." It would not be correct to say," The rose 
smells sweetly" (in a sweet manner), because this would represent the rose as 
performing the operation of smelling in a particular manner. We can say, 
" The rose is sweet " [to the smell.] 

"We often hear persons say, " I feel badly," when they mean that they are 
sick. They do not mean that they feel in a bad manner, but that they feel 
[are] bad ; that is, unwell.* 

Another very common form of expression is, "He arrived safely." This 
is incorrect. It is not meant that he arrived in a safe manner, but that he was 
safe when he arrived. " They escaped all safe to the land." Acts xxvii. 44. 

Some forms are subjoined, which may be useful. 

" This plant grows [becomes] tall." 

" This plant grows rapidly " [in a rapid manner.] 

" She looks [is] cold." 

" She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him." 

" He feels [is] warm." 

" He feels warmly [in a warm manner] the insult offered to him." 

" Harriet always appears neat." 

" Harriet always dresses neatly." 

" He lives free from care." 

" He lives freely at another's expense." 

" This statement seems correct." 

" This statement seems correctly made." 

" The apple tastes sour." 

" The clouds look dark." 

" How pleasant the fields look ! " 

" He feels happy." 

" The clay burns [becomes] white." 

" The moon shines bright." 

" He stands firm." 

" He grows old." * 

" So while we taste the fragrance of the rose, 
Glows not her blush the fairer?" 



* Bad, however, is not the appropriate adjective; it is ambiguous, to say the 
least. 



SYNTAX. 147 

Exercises to be Parsed 

There was the honest cock-robin, the favorite game of 
stripling sportsmen, with its loud, querulous note ; and [there 
were] the twittering blackbirds, flying in sable clouds ; and 
the golden-winged woodpecker, with his splendid plumage ; 
and the cedar bird, with its red-tipped wings and yellow- 
tipped tail, and its little montero cap of feathers ; and the 
blue jay, that noisy coxcomb, in his gay, light-blue coat and 
white underclothes, screaming and chattering, nodding and 
bobbing, and bowing, and pretending to be on good terms 
with every songster of the grove. Washington Irving. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

[Rem. 6.] Solomon was wiser than the ancient kings. 
Numa was wiser than any Roman king. That ship is larger 
than any ship. China has a greater population than any 
nation on earth. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his chil- 
dren. George IV. was the most powerful of the Roman 
kings. Mary is the most beautiful of her sisters. The father 
is the tallest of his children. He is the most industrious of 
all the rest. 

[Rem. 8.] A more healthier place cannot be found. The 
nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. This 
is the worser evil. 

[Rem. 9.] I do not like those kind of men. Who broke 
that tongs'? Will you have some of those molasses. These 
sort of things are easily managed. 

[Rem. 10.] Wealth and poverty are both temptations to 
man ; this tends to exGite pride, that discontent. Religion 
raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of 
earth, this opens for them a prospect to the skies. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

[Rem. 11.] This here apple is green, and that there is 
rotten. 

[Rem. 12.] I never read them books. Them men spoke 
to me. 

[Rem. 13.] I walked ten mile in three hour. I bought 
three cord of wood. The pole is ten foot high. 

[Rem. 14.] Let each of them be heard in their turn. 
Each of you are entitled to your share. Every one of us 
have our faults. Let each esteem others better than them- 
selves. Neither of us have had our portion. Have either of 
you your knives ? Every one of us have recited our lessons. 
Neither of tho.se men seem to have any idea, that their opin- 
ions may be wrong. If either of these two qualities are 
wanting, the language is imperfect. 

[Rem. 15.] Either of those six men can do it. Either 
of the three will answer. 

[Rem. 16.] Magnesia feels smoothly. Heaven opened 
widely her ever during gates. He sat silently. Did you ar- 
rive safely? The apple tastes sourly. The cloth was colored 
blackly. She seems neatly. The breaking waves dashed 
highly. 

Rule III. 

Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they 
stand in gender, number, and person; as, 

" This is the friend of whom I spoke ; he has just arrived;" 
" Lying is a vice which I despise ; it is disgusting." 

Note. For the limitations, explanations, &c. see Etymology. 

Remark 1. Pronouns sometimes refer to propositions, and phrases ; as, 
" She is handsome, and she has the misfortune of knowing it;" "You have 
overcome envy with glory, which [thing] is very difficult." 



SYNTAX. 149 

Remark 2. Pronouns referring to two or more nouns, 
when the objects are taken together, should be in the plural ; 
as, "John and James attend to their studies." 

Remark 3. The nouns in such cases are generally connected hy and. 
But and may come between nouns, when the objects are not taken together ; 
as, "John, (and not James,) * attends to his studies ;" "Every book, and every 
paper, is kept in its place ;" "Each book, and each paper, is kept in its place;" 
"No book, and no paper, is out of its place." 

When the nouns express different characters of the same person, the pro- 
nouns should be singular ; as, " That great statesman and general lost his life." 

Remark 4. When two or more nouns, in the singular, are 
connected by or, or nor, the objects are not taken together, 
and the pronoun must be singular ; as, " Either John or 
James attends to his studies ;" " Neither John nor James 
attends to his studies." 

Remark 5. When the objects are taken together, and the 
nouns are of different persons, the plural pronoun must be of 
the first person, if one of the antecedents is of the first per- 
son ; and of the second, if the antecedents are of the second 
and third persons ; as, "James, and thou, and I, are attached 
to our country ;" "James and I are attached to our country ;" 
"James and thou are attached to your country." 

Remarks. Collective nouns in the singularj_may have 
pronouns in the plural, when reference is made to the indivi- 
duals composing the collection ; as, " The multitude eagerly 
pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Remark 7. A singular noun, after many a, may have a plural pro- 
noun ; as, 

" Full many a lady 
Have I eyed with best regard; and many a time 
The harmony of their tongues hath into bondage 
Brought my too diligent ear." Shahspeare. 

But pronouns in the same clause with the noun must be singular ; as, 

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air." Gray. 



* The parenthetical marks are not necessary. 

14 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 8. The neuter pronoun it is applied to animals whose sex is 
unknown, or unnecessary to he regarded. See "Gender," in the Etymology 
of nouns. 

Remark 9. The pronoun it is variously used. For its use with verbs 
usually called impersonal, see "Defective Verbs." For its use when an infini- 
tive or a clause is the subject ofaverb, see "Infinitive Mood, fyc. as Subjects." 

Before the verh to be, it may refer to a noun or pronoun in the predicate 
of either the singular or the plural number, and of any person and gender ; 
as, "It is a man who is coming ;" "It is /;" "It is men who range them;" 
"It is books that I love." 

In such constructions, it stands instead of the person, the persons, the thing, 
8pe. Thus, '• The person who is coming is a man ;" " The person is I," or " I 
am the person;" "The persons who range them are men;" "The things that 
I love are hooks," or " Books are the things that I love." But the verh after 
it is always of the third person singular. In Chaucer we find, " It am I." 

This word sometimes stands for the state or condition of things; as, " That 
«imay go well with thee;" "It shall he well with the righteous;" "How 
fares it with thee?" 

It is sometimes merely an expletive ; as, 

" Come and trip it as you go 

On the light, fantastic toe." Milton. 

Remark 10. Relatives and interrogatives are placed as near as possi- 
ble to the beginning of their clauses ; as, " This is the man whom I saw?' 
" Who is this man ?" 

In the clauses to whieh these words belong, the predicate is placed first ; 
so that the objective case and the predicate nominative precede the verb ; 
whom is the object of the verb saw, and who is the predicate nominative 
after is. 

Remark 11. The relative is sometimes omitted ; as, " This is the man 
[whom] I saw." It is generally inelegant to omit the relative hi the nomina- 
tive case ; as, " The captain had several men in his ship, died of the scurvy." 

Remark 12. The relative loho is applied to persons, and ichieh to things 
without life and to the lower animals ; as, " The man who; the book loMch; the 
horse which." 

Remark 13. When things and the lower animals are spoken of as per- 
sons, they take pronouns representing persons ; as, "Night, sable goddess, 
from her ebon throne;" "The lion said to the ass, who had been hunting 
with him." 

Remark 14. The relative which is sometimes applied to young children ; 
as, " The child which was sick." It was formerly applied to all persons ; as, 
" Our Father which art in heaven." The interrogative which is applied to 
persons and things indiscriminately ; as, "Which man did you see?" "Which 
book did you read?" 



SYNTAX. 151 

Remark 15. A cellective noun, when it does not refer directly to the in- 
dividuals composing- the collection, should not he represented by who; thus 
we should not say, " He is on the committee who was appointed ;" but that 
or which was appointed. 

Remark 16. The relative which sometimes stands after the proper name 
of a person ; but, in such cases, it refers, not to the person, but to the word; 
as, " Herod — which [word] is another name for cruelty." 

Remark 17. Which sometimes stands after a common noun denoting- a 
person, when the character and not the person is referred to ; as, " He is a 
good writer, which [thing] is all that he professes to be." 

Remark 18. A relative clause usually modifies the antecedent, and is 
essential to it; as, "Boys, who do their duty, will be loved." Here, that' 
may be used for who. But sometimes the relative clause merely expresses an 
additional affirmation, and who and which are equivalent to and he, and it,8?c. 
or simply he, it, fyc; as. " God is the sovereign of the heavens, who gives us 
every blessing, and whom we are bound to revere ;" " He came to the town 
Cirta, which he immediately besieged." Here the relative that cannot be used. 

Remark 19. That is used in preference to who or which 
in the following cases : 

(1.) After adjectives in the superlative degree ; as, 
" Charles XII. was one of the greatest madmen that the world 
ever saw." 

(2.) After same, very, and all; as, "He is the same man 
that I saw before ;" " He is the very man that did it ;" " It 
was all that he could do." 

(3.) After who; as, "Who that knows him would speak 
thus r 

(4.) When the relative refers to both persons and things; 
as, " The men and cities that he saw." 

Remark 20. That never admits a preposition before it, but it may be 
governed by a preposition following it. "We cannot say, " This is the man of 
that he spoke ;" but we may say, " This is the man that he spoke of." That 
is sometimes used when a preposition is omitted; as, "In the day that thou 
eatest thereof," that is, in the day in which. 

Remark 21. It is inelegant to mingle the solemn and familiar styles in 
addressing the same object ; as, " Alcefa, thou art more beautiful than the 
moon on her fourteenth night, but your wickedness causes me to hate you." 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 22. A change should not he made from one relative to another in 
in the same connection ; thus, it is improper to say, " The man that met us 
to-day, and whom you saw yesterday, is the same." Whom should be changed 
to that, or that to who. 

Remark 23. A relative clause which modifies the subject 
should not be placed after a noun in the predicate ;. thus, 
" He should not keep a horse that cannot ride," should be, 
" He that cannot ride, should not keep a horse." 

Mr. Murray's seventh rale is, " When the relative is preceded by two 
nominatives of different persons, the relative and verb may agree in person 
with either, according to the sense; as, " I am the man who command you ;" 
or, " I am the man who commands yon." 

There is no necessity for this rule, if the relative clause is in its proper 
place. The first sentence qnoted should be, " I, who command you, am the 
man." This has a different meaning from "I am the man who commands you." 

Remark 24. Pronouns are sometimes made to precede their nouns ; as, 
" When round the ruins of their ancient oak 
The peasants flocked to hear the minstrel play." Rogers. 

Remark 25. The English language is deficient in not having a pronoun 
of the third person singular, applicable to either sex — one that would corres- 
pond to the noun person. 

If we wish to refer to a person without revealing the sex of that person, 
we meet with a difficulty ; thus, " The person who informed me declared that 
(--) -was present." Here, if we use either he or she, we disclose what we 
wish to conceal : we are obliged to resort to an awkward construction — to 
repeat the noun, or use both the masculine and feminine pronouns. " If any 
man or -woman shall violate his or her pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." 
Here is an unpleasant construction. 

This deficiency has led to an improper use of the plural pronoun they; as 
"The person who informed me, declared that they were present." 

Remark 26. He, in the singular, is often used instead of the person; as, 
"He who is just will be rewarded ;" that is, the person who. In the plural, 
some use the corresponding pi-onoun they, others use the adjective those, re- 
ferring to the noun persons understood ; tbus, " They or those who are just, 
will be rewarded." Those is used more frequently than they. 

Remark 27. In the use of pronouns, care should be taken to avoid ambi. 
guity. The following sentence is ambiguous : "John told James that this was 
the man that he had seen before." We cannot tell to which of the two nouns, 
John and James, the pronoun he refers. 

To avoid this ambiguity, the noun is sometimes repeated after the pronoun; 
as, "John told James that this was the man that he [John] , or that he [James] 
had seen before." The idea may be expressed in some other form ; as. "John 
said to James, ' This is the man that I saw before, or, that you saw before.' " 



SYNTAX. 153 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

He who ridicules the little imperfections and weaknesses 
of his friends will in time find mankind united against him. 

The man who is faithfully attached to religion may be 

relied on with confidence. 

"I feel a newer life in every gale ; 
The winds, that fan the flowers, 
And with their welcome breathings fill the sail, 

Tell of serener hours ; 
Of hours that glide unfelt away 
Beneath the sky of May " Per rival. 

Exercises to be Corrected, 

I do not blame any person for being tender of their repu- 
tation. Rebecca took goodly raiment and put them upon 
Jacob. Every one must judge of their own feelings.* One 
should not think too favorably of ourselves. I felt her pulse 
and they beat 120 times in a minute. I have tasted the mo- 
lasses, and they are excellent. The mind, as well as the body 
of man, demands his proper food. 

[Rem. 2.] Mary and Martha are careful of her books. 
Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. 
Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity; 
guard against the slightest indulgence of it. 

[Rem. 3.] Every plant and every flower proclaims their 
Maker's praise. Sarah, and Anne too, has lost their bonnets. 

[Rem. 4.] A man may see a metaphor or an allegory 
in a picture, as well as read them in a book. James 
or John will favor us with their company. Neither Sa- 
rah, Anne, nor Jane has performed their task. A man is 
not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will move 

* See Rem. 14 under Rule ii., and exercises. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

only as they are moved. One or the other must relinquish 
their claim. 

[Rem. 6.] The council were divided in its sentiments. 
The meeting was not unanimous, and it separated without 
coming to a decision? The people have no opinion of its 
own. Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself 
bread. 

[Rem. 7.] Many a man loses their character by such acts. 
Many a book has corrupted the morals of their readers. 

[Rem. 11.] There were several present could get no 
seat. He was a man had no influence. 

[Rem. 12.] This is the tree whom I planted. That is 
the vice whom I hate. There was a certain householder 
which planted a vineyard. The nations who have wise rulers 
are happy. The birds who swim have webbed feet. He 
has a soul who cannot be influenced by such motives. 
Brave souls,* which have fought against tyranny. 

[Rem. 13.] They took the virgin Truth, and hewed its 
lovely form into a thousand pieces. Policy keeps coining 
truth in its mints — such truth as it can tolerate ; and every 
die, except its own, it breaks and casts away. 

[Rem. 15.] The court, who has great influence on the 
public manners, ought to be very exemplary. He met seve- 
ral crowds, who were going up the street. 

[Rem. 16.] It is no wonder that such a man did not shine 
at the court of Elizabeth — who was but another name for 
prudence. He spoke of Nero — who is another name for 
cruelty. 

[Rem. 19.] It is the best which can be got. He was the 
first who entered. It is the same horse which you saw yes- 

* Souls here means persons. 



SYNTAX. 155 

fcerday. It was all which he had to give. Solomon was the 
wisest man whom the world had seen. The lady and the 
lapdog which we saw at the window, have disappeared. 
Who, who has any regard for his character, would act thus 1 

[Rem. 22.3 The lady whom we saw to-day, and that was 
at our house yesterday, is the same. O thou, who hast pre- 
served us, and that wilt continue to preserve us ! 

[Rem. 23.] I have been appointed general who give the 
orders to-day. He needs no spectacles that cannot see. 

[Rem. 27.3 Jane told Mary that her book was spoiled. 
The lord cannot refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon 
his death ; nor can he remove his present tenant so long as 
he lives. 

Rule IV. 

The noun or pronoun, which is the subject of a 
finite verb, is put in the nominative case; as, " He 
is studious;" " She is virtuous." 

Note. Any verb, not in the infinitive mood, is called a finite verb. This 
term is used in the rule, because the infinitive sometimes takes a subject in 
the objective case. See Rule xi. 

Remark 1. Infinitives, &c. may be the subjects of verbs. See "Infini- 
tives, Sf-c. as Subjects." 

Remark 2. Every nominative, except the cases referred to in Rule vii., 
must be the subject of a verb expressed or imderstood ; as, " Who spoke? 
He ;" that is, he spoke. 

The following sentence is incorrect : " These evils were caused by Cati- 
line, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been exposed 
to so great dangers." Here who is a nominative without a verb. The idea 
may be expressed thus, '■• These evils were caused by Catiline, the punish- 
ment of whom would have prevented the republic from being exposed to so 
great dangers ;" or, the sentence may continue in the same form, with who 
omitted; "These evils were caused by Catiline ; if he had been punished,"&c. 

" This man, though he has a great amount of knowledge, yet he keeps it 
all to himself," should be, " Though this man has," &xv 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 3. The verb is frequently omitted, particularly in the answers 
to questions, and after as and than; as, " Who gave you this book? John;" 
that is, "John gave it ;" " You have read more than I ;" that is, " than I have 
read;" "1 study as well as he;" that is, as he studies ; " The smoother the 
surface [is], the deeper the water [is]." 

Remark 4. The subject generally precedes the verb - r but 
it is sometimes placed after the verb, or after the first auxil- 
iary ; as, " Will tie go V\ " Go thou ;" " Knowest thou the 
land f" " Were he good, he would be happy ;"" Here am /;" 
"There is a man;'" " Great is Diana;" " Ye shall not eat of 
it, neither shall ye touch it ;"" Said he;" "Began the reverend 
sage;" " Him followed his next mate" 

"Burned Marmlon's swarthy cheek like fire, 

And shook his very frame for ire." Sir W. Scott. 

Remark 5. Every relative pronoun has a clause of its 

own, and the antecedent has no grammatical connection with 

any word in the relative clause. When the antecedent is in 

the nominative case, we must go beyond all the relative 

clauses to find its verb. 

Thus, " God, by whose kindness we live, to whom nothing is similar, by 
whom all things were made, is eternal." If we include each relative clause 
in a parenthesis, we shall see the connection of the subject with the verb 
more readily ; Thus, " God, (by whose kindness we live), (to whom nothing 
is similar), (by whom all things were made), is eternal." 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow; 
And dark as winter -was the flow 
Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 

Oh ! lives there, Heaven, beneath thy dread expanse, 
One hopeless, dark idolater of Chance! 

The man, whose thoughts never rise above the objects of 
sense, who never feels an emotion of gratitude to the Giver 
of all blessings, whose wishes are confined to this transitory 
life, is little elevated above the brutes. 



SYNTAX. 157 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

Him and me are of the same age. You and me will be 
scolded. Them that seek knowledge will find it. Them 
are excellent cherries. You are as old as her. Who has a 
knife? Me. Who found my book? Her and him. He has 
more books than me. Many is more diligent than her. You 
can write as well as me. Whom do you think has come to 
see us? That is the boy, whom we think deserves the prize. 
These are the men whom we. might suppose are the authors 
of the work. Whom, of all the men in the world, do you 
think was chosen ambassador? 

[Rem. 2.] Two nouns, when they come together, and do 
not signify the same thing, the former must be in the pos- 
sessive case. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a 
time, men are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. 

Rule V. 

A verb Must agree with its subject in number 
and person; as, "I write, thou writest, he writes." 

Remark 1. When an infinitive or a clause is the subject, it requires a 
verb of the third person singular. 

Remark 2. Nominatives have plural verbs in every case~in which they 
would have plural pronouns, and singular verbs in every case in which they 
would have singular pronouns. See Rule iii. Remarks 2, 3, 4, 6, 7. 

(1.) When the subject consists of two or more nominatives taken together, 
(in which case they are connected by and expressed or understood,) the verb 
must be plural ; ae, "John and James attend?'' 

The same remark applies to infinitives and clauses used as subjects ; as> 
" To be rich, and to be happy, are different things." 

When the nouns denote but one person, the verb is singular ; as, " The 
saint, the father, and the husband^ra^/s." Burns. 

(2.) If the singular nominatives between which and is placed, are not 
taken together, the verb is singular ; as, "John, and not James, attends;" 
"John, and James also, attends." In each of these sentences, John is the sub- 
ject of attends, and James is the subject of the verb attends understood. 



i58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thus, "John attends, and James attends not ;" "John attends, and James also 
attends." The verb which is expressed agrees, of course, with the nominative 
that belongs to it : if that nominative is plural, the verb should be plural, &c; 
as, " Friends, and not merit, cause his promotion." 

When each, every, or no is used, the objects are taken separately, and the 
verb must be singular ; as, "Each book and paper is kept;" "Every book 
and paper is kept;" " No book and no paper is kept." 

(3.) When two or more singular nominatives are connected by or or nor, 
the objects are taken separately, and the verb is singular; as, "John or James 
attends;" " Neither John nor James attends." 

(4.) Collective nouns in the singular may have verbs in 
the plural, when the reference is to the individuals composing 
the collection ; as, " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure f 
that is, the persons composing the multitude. 

When a collective noun denotes the collection as one body, 
the verb must be singular ; as, " The company was large." 
Here we do not mean that the persons composing the com- 
pany were large. 

(5.) A nominative after many a demands a singular verb ; as, " Full 
many ajiower is born." 

Note. In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons ; and hence the 
principle in Rem. 5, under Rule iiL is not applicable to verbs. 

Remark 3. When the nominatives connected by or or 
nor, are of different persons or numbers, the verb agrees 
with the nominative next to it ; as," Either thou or I am con- 
cerned ;" " I or thou art to blame ;" " Neither you nor he is 
in fault;" "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." 

In general, it is better not to use such constructions as these. A verb is 
supposed to be understood with each of the nominatives, except that "which is 
next to the verb ; and it is generally better to express it, or to use some other 
form for conveying the idea. Thus, " Either thou, art concerned, or I am ;" or, 
" One of us is concerned;" "lam to blame, or thou ait;" or, " One of us is 
to blame ;" or, " The blame rests on me or thee ;" " He was injured by nei- 
ther poverty nor riches," &c. 

Remark 4. Every finite verb not in the imperative mood should have a 
subject expressed, except when the verb is connected to another. 

The following sentence is incorrect : " The whole is produced as an illu- 
sion of the first class, and hopes it will be found worthy of patronage." Here 
hopes is connected to is produced, and the whole is represented as hoping, &c. 
It should be, " and he hopes," &c. 



SYNTAX. 159 

" Any person finding the spectacles, and will return them to the Gait 
House, shall he liberally rewarded." Here person is the subject of shall be 
retvarded, and will return has no subject. It should be, "Any person who 
shall find the spectacles, and return them," &c. 

Remark 5. The adjuncts of the nominative should not affect the form of 
the verb ; thus, " The number of oysters increases;" not increase; " The ship, 
with all the crew, was lost ;" not were. 

In the last sentence there is but one nominative, ship, which is singular, 
and requires a singular verb. Some writers use the plural form in such 
cases, but they should not be imitated. In most cases it is better to use and, 
with a plural verb ; as, " The ship and all the crew were lost." 

Examples to be Parsed. 

Mary and Anne run. George or William has gone to 
town. The jury have agreed in a verdict. The army con- 
sists of a thousand men. Every man, woman, and child 
was saved. Many a man has ruined himself by such con- 
duct. That, great general and statesman has been slandered. 
Each man and woman has contributed a small sum. 

MODEL. 

" Mary and Anne run." 

Run, 
Is a verb— a word by which something is affirmed, &c. ; third person plu- 
ral — because the subject consist's of two nominatives of the third person taken 
together, according to Remark 2. (1.) under Rule iii. which says, "When the 
subject consists," &c. 

Exercises to be Corrected- 

They was discontented. You has no book. Does you 
live there? You is here. You was there. We was de- 
lighted. Thou are expected. Thou has been pleased. Was 
you present ? Circumstances alters cases. Them 's my 
sentiments. Molasses are sweet. His pulse are very quick. 
He dare not do it. She need not do it. Bad boys hates 
study. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 
There 's two or three of us here. 



IQQ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then, from mountain tops and valleys, 

Armed with cross and brand, 
Trusty Switzers round him rallies 

For the holy land ; 
While ever and anon there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary, ruined walls. 

I, who is before you, am the man. Thou, who are the 
author of life, can restore it. The number that have been 
chosen, are twenty. There was more apples than one. 

O thou my voice inspire 
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

[Rem. 2. (1.)] Idleness and ignorance produces many 
vices. Temperance and exercise preserves health. Time 
and tide waits for no man. Our welfare and security consists 
in unity. Honor and fame from no conditions rises. He and 
I was there. The love of virtue and devotion to pleasure 
is opposed to each other. His energy and industry was re- 
markable. What means that noise and excitement? Much 
does human pride and folly require correction. 

[Rem. 2. (2.)] The mind, and not the body, sin. Merit, 
and not patronage, cause his promotion. Diligent industry, 
and not mean savings, produce honorable competence. Vir- 
tue, and not riches, constitute the happiness of a nation. 
Books, and not pleasure, occupies his time. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with 
life. Every man, and every woman, were numbered. Every 
sight, and every sound, amaze him. And every eye, and 
every heart, are joyful. No oppressor, no tyrant, triumph 
there. No wife, no mother, were there to comfort him e Each 
day, and hour, and moment, are to be properly employed. 

[Rem. 2. (3.)] Neither John nor Joseph were there. Our 
happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into our 
own hands. William or Jonathan have the book. When 
sickness, infirmity or misfortune affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. Neither George, nor Thomas, nor 



SYNTAX. 161 

Richard, are studying. Either Charles, or Robert, or Ben- 
jamin, have seen him. Either ability or inclination were 
wanting. A tart reply, a proneness to rebuke, or a captious 
spirit, are capable of embittering domestic life. 

[Rem, 2. (4.)] All the world is -spectators of your con- 
duct. The council was divided in their sentiments. The 
audience was much pleased. The public is requested to 
attend. The council was not unanimous. In France, the 
peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort makes use of 
wooden shoes. The majority was disposed to adopt the 
measure. 

The corporation consist of a mayor and council. The 
British parliament are composed of king, lords, and com- 
mons. The congress of the United States are composed of 
a senate, and a house of representatives. The committee 
were very full, when this point was decided. Generation after 
generation pass away. That nation are powerful. That so- 
ciety are nourishing. The assembly were dissolved. Con- 
gress have adjourned. 

[Rem. 2. (5.)] Many a man have lost his character by 
such means. Many a one have been deceived by him. 

[Rem. 3.] Either John or I is concerned. Either thou 
or I art greatly mistaken. You or George have~done wrong. 
Neither John nor his brothers was there. The author or 
his works is in fault. 

[Rem. 4.] If the calm, in which he was born, and lasted 
so long, had continued, &c. As it hath pleased him, of his 
goodness to give you a safe deliverance, and hath preserved 
you in the great danger, &c. These we have extracted from 
a historian of undoubted credit, and are the same, &c. A 
man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great 
abilities, &c. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to heaven resigned? Pope. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

[Rem. 5.] A part of the exports consist of raw silk. 

The derivation of these words are uncertain. Nothing but 

vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. The general, 
with some soldiers, were taken. 



Rule VI. 

A noun or pronoun, in the predicate, after an 
intransitive or passive verb, is put in the same case 
as the subject, when it denotes the same person or 
thing; as, " I am he ;" " Stephen died a martyr ;" 
"He was called John;" "I took it to be him." 

Note. In the last sentence, it is the suhject of the infinitive to be, [See 
Rule xi.], and is in the objective case ; for this reason, him, in the predicate, 
is put in the objective case. 

Remark 1. The predicate nominative is sometimes placed before the 
verb, and the subject after the verb, particularly when the predicate is an in- 
terrogative pronoun ; [See Rule iii. Rem. 10] : as, " Who is he?" "A train- 
band captain eke was he." Cowper. 

There is an error in the following sentence : " Whom do men say that I 
am?" If the subject and predicate were placed in their usual order, the 
sentence would be, " Do men say that / am whom!" Whom should be who, 
because the subject I is in the nominative. 

Note. It will often help us to understand the construction of sentences, if 
we use some other word instead of the interrogative; thus, " Do men say that 
I" am he?' 1 

A person referring to two men in company with each other, asks," Which 
is the governor?" Here which is the subject; the answer would be, "This 
is the governor." 

Remark 2. In relative clauses, in indirect questions, and in some other 
cases, both nominatives are placed before the verb ; as, " He is not the same 
man that he was ;" " Tell me who he is ;" " The dog it was that died," Gold- 
smith. 

Remark 3. When a question is made without an interrogative pronoun, 
and a regular form is used, both nominatives are placed after the verb ; as, 
" Ishe a studentl" If a compound form is used, the subject is placed after 
the first auxiliary, and the predicate nominative after the rest of the verb: as, 
" Has he been a student?" 



SYNTAX. 163 

Remark 4. The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate nomina- 
tive : the subject and the verb may be of a different person or number from 
from that of the predicate nominative; as, " Thou art he;" "Words are wind;" 
"His meat was locusts." 

We may change such sentences as the last, so as to make the predicate 
nominative the subject, without materially changing the sense ; as, " Locusts 
were his meat." In the sentence, "Locusts were his meat," we affirm some- 
thing of the subject locusts. 

In the following sentence, waters and clouds are supposed to form the 
subject ; " His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky ;" that 
is, " Dark waters and thick clouds of the sky were his pavilion." 

Such forms as " His pavilion were," &c. are not agreeable to the ear. 

It is often better to express the idea in a different way; thus, " Dark waters 
and thick clouds of the sky formed his pavilion ;" or, " His pavilion was 
formed of dark waters and thick clouds of the sky;" " His meat consisted of 
locusts," &c. 

In this sentence, " The wages of sin is death" wages is generally said to 
be plural, and death is considered the subject ; but wages is used as singular 
in King James's Translation ; as, " He that earneth wages, earneth wages to 
put it into a bag with holes." Haggai. i. 6. 

Remark 5. The infinitive, when used simply as the noun-form of the 
verb, differs, in construction, from the finite verb in no respect but in having 
no subject. It has an object, when the finite vei'b has ; it is modified in the 
same way, by adverbs and adjuncts ; it has an adjective after it, when the 
finite verb has ; in short, it has every thing after it, that is, in the predicate, 
that the finite verb has, and differs from the finite verb only in wanting what 
goes before, that is, the subject: Thus, 

He killed a man, To kill a man ; 

He killed a man maliciously with a To kill a man maliciously with a 

sword. sword ; : — 

He is good, To be good. 

Hence, the infinitive may have a predicate nominative, though it cannot 
have a subject nominative; as, "To become a grammarian requires study ;" 
" He wishes to be an officer;" " He affects to be a lord;" " He hopes to be 
elected governor;" "It is supposed to be lie?'' 

A noun or pronoun, after the infinitive of an intransitive 

or passive verb, is the predicate nominative, except when 

the infinitive has a subject in the objective. 

Such expressions as, To be taught grammar, To be allowed a seat, are 
also excepted. See Rule ix. Rem. 

The same general principle is seen in the construction of the participle ; 
thus, " I have some recollection of his father's being SLJudge." Here judge is 
the predicate nominative. See Rule xiii. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. Bullions supposes the noun or pronoun, in such cases to be in the ob- 
jective ; as, " To be the slave of passion, is of all slavery the most wretched." 
He supposes the following sentences to be correct : " He was not sure of its 
being me;" " Its being me needs make no difference in your determination." 
Me in each of these sentences ought to be /. 

Dr. B., to support his views, refers to a Latin and Greek idiom, according 
to which the accusative is used after the infinitive of intransitive and passive 
verbs. But this idiom does not correspond to the English. In the Latin and 
Greek languages, the infinitive takes a subject in the accusative so generally, 
that there is always a reference to this construction, and adjectives and nouns 
after these verbs are generally put in the accusative, except in cases of attrac- 
tion, to agree with the subject expressed or understood. But in the English 
language, it is not a general principle, that the infinitive takes a subject. But 
Dr. B. makes the objective to be used more frequently in English, than the 
accusative is even in Greek. In such a phrase, for instance, as, "On account 
of his being a man,'''' he would consider man in the objective, while, in the 
Greek, the corresponding word may be in the nominative. (Dia to anthropos 
einai.J 

Mr. G. Brown quotes this sentence, " To affect to be a lord in one's closet 
would be a romantic madness," and says, " In this last sentence, lord is in 
the objective after to be; and madness in the nominative after would be. 

Mr. Brown does not take the ground, that the noun, after the infinitive of 
an intransitive or passive verb, is always in the objective ; hence I cannot 
discover on what principle he supposes lord to be in the objective. Can it 
be that he supposes it to be in this case, because it comes after the transitive 
verb to affect 1 It is certainly not the object of that verb ; and the words that 
follow the infinitive are not at all affected by the word on which the infinitive 
depends. If such phrase as the following were used, " To affect to kill a 
lord," lord would be in the objective, because to hill is transitive, and not 
because to affect is. 

The German language, in the use of the infinitive, resembles the English 
more than the Latin and Greek do. In that language, the nominative, and 
not the accusative, is used after the infinitive of intransitive and passive verbs; 
as, '• Der (not den) Sclave der Leidenschaft zu seyn," To be the slave of pas- 
sion; " Der Ruf ein guter Prinz zn seyn," (not einen guten Prinzen,) The 
reputation of being (to be) a good prince. 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Paul was an inspired apostle. George Washington was 
chosen commander of the American Army. John Adams 
was elected president. That man was appointed secretary. 
It was he that spoke. It is I. 

Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave ; 

Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding knave. Pope. 



SYNTAX, 165 

MODEL. 

" Paul was an inspired apostle." 
Apostle, 
Is a common noun, &c. ; predicate nominative after tvas, Rule vii. "A 
j>un or pronoun," &c. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

It is me. I did not know it was him. I am certain it 
could not have been her. It is them that deserve the blame. 
I would not except the offer, if I were him. It is not me that 
he is angry with. I know not whether it was them who 
managed the affair, but I am certain it was not him. I sup- 
posed it to be he. It may have been him. 1 believed it to 
be she. It must be her. 

[Rem, 1.] Whom is he? Whom do you think he is? 
Who do you suppose him to be? Whom do the people say 
she is? 

Rule VII. 

The nominative case is sometimes used without 
a verb. 

This takes place, 

1. When an address is made; as, "Plato, thou reasonest 
well." 

2. In mere exclamations ; as, "0 the times! O the manners! 

3. When the attention is directed to an object before an 
affirmation is made respecting it ; as, 

" The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they?" 

4. When a noun and a participle are used instead of a 
dependent clause ; as, " Shamembe'mg lost, all virtue is lost ;" 
that is, when shame is lost. 

15 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 1. A noun used in this way with a participle is said to be in the 
nominative case absolute. When an address is made, the name of the object 
addressed is usually said to be in the nominative case independent. Times, 
manners, and Fathers may also be said to be in the nominative case indepen- 
dent. 

Remark 2. Being and having been are sometimes omitted, when the 
nominative is absolute ; as, 

Her wheel at rest, the matron thriBs no more 
With treasured tales and legendary lore." Rogers. 

" He destroyed, 
Or won to what may work his utter loss," &c. 

Being is omitted after which, and having been before destroyed and won. 

Remark 3. The objective should not be used for the nominative absolute ; 
thus, we should say he destroyed, not him destroyed. 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

These matters having been arranged, the company sepa- 
rated. He dismounted, his horse being unmanageable. 
What could they do, a youth being their leader? 

Good, the more 
Communicated, more abundant grows, 
The Author not impaired but honored more. Milton. 

Ah, then, what honest triumph flushed my breast ; 

This truth once known — to bless is to be blessed. Rogers, 

Soul of the just ! companion of the dead ! 

Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled 1 Campbell. 

Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! 

How many a tale their music tells, 

Of youth, and home, and that sweet time, 

When last I heard their soothing chime ! T. Moore. 

My friends, do they now and then send 
A wish, or a thought after me 1 Cowper. 

The lady of his love — oh ! she was changed 
As by the sickness of the soul. Byron. 

The warlike of the isles, 
The men of field and^vave ! 
Are not the rocks their funeral pile, 
The seas and shores their grave ? Hemans. 



SYNTAX. 167 



MODEL. 



" These matters having been arranged," &c. 
Matters, 
Is a common noun, fyc; nominative case absolute, with the participle hav- 
ing been arranged. Rule vii. 

Having been arranged, 
Is the perfect passive participle of the verb to arrange ; it belongs to the 
noun matters. Rule ii. 

" Soul of the just," &c. 
Soul, 
Is a common noun, neuter gender, second person singular, nominative 
case independent — an address being made. Rule vii. 

Exercises to be Corrected, 

[Rem. 3.] Whose gray top shall tremble, him descending. 
Him, whom they justly called the Father of his country, hav- 
ing been taken captive, the whole army surrendered. Them 
refusing to comply, I withdrew. And me, what shall I do ? 



Rule VIII. 

The possessive case is placed before the name of 
the object possessed; as, " John's book; his book." 

Remark 1. The name of the object possessed is sometimes omitted 
when it may be easily supplied. With the pronouns ours, yours, 4»c.,itis 
never expressed. [See "Personal Pronouns" Remarks 1, 2.] 

Thus, "This book is Henry's [book];" "This is a book of Henry's [books];" 
" This book is yours [book]" * " This is a book of yours [books];" " He is at 
the governor's [house]." 

Remark 2. The apostrophe is never used with pronouns. 

Remark 3. The relation of possession may be denoted by the preposition 
of with the objective ; thus, " My father's house," and " The house of my 
father," express the same idea. 

But of does not always denote possession. "A crown of gold," signifies 

* If the noun were expressed, yours would be your. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"A crown made of gold ;" "A house of representatives," signifies "A house 
consisting of representatives." In such cases, the possessive cannot be used. 

Remark 4. When the idea may be expressed by either of these forms, 
we should use that by which we may avoid harshness and ambiguity. Thus, 
instead of " his son's wife's sister," we should say, " the sister of his son's 
wife ;" instead of " the distress of the son of the king," we should say, " the 
distress of the king's son." 

" The love of God," may denote either the love which God feels, or the 
love which is felt towards God ; but "God's love," denotes only the love 
which God feels. 

Remark 5. When two or more nouns are used as the designation of one 
individual, the possessive termination is added to the last; as, "Paul the apos- 
tle's advice ;" "General Washington's tent;" "Smith the bookseller's house;" 
' The Duke of Wellington's exploits." 

Here Wellington's is not in the possessive, but in the objective after of; 
Duke is in the possessive, but the whole is taken as one name, and the p os- 
sessive termination is placed at the end. 

Remark 6. When the possessive termination is placed thus, the words 
are so closely connected as to form but one name. If any thing more is added, 
the termination must not be placed after it. We may say, " Charles Stuart's 
death," or, " The King of England's death ;" but not, " Charles Stuart, the 
King of England's death." 

" This fact appears from Dr. Bacon of Birmingham's experiments." Here 
" of Birmingham " is added to the name of the individual to designate his 
place of residence, and the possessive termination should not be placed after 
ham. 



Remark 7. When two or more nouns in the possessive case are connect- 
ed by and, the possessive termination should be added to each of them; as, 
" These are John's and Eliza's books." 

It would be better to say, " These books belong to John and Eliza." 

But, if objects are possessed in common by two or more, and the nouns 
are closely connected without any intervening words, the possessive termina- 
tion is added to the last noun only ; as, " These are John and Eliza's books.', 

It would be better to say, "These books belong in common to John and 
Eliza.'. 

Remark 8. Mr. Murray says, " But when a pause is proper, and the 
governing not expressed ; and the latter part of the sentence is extended ; 
it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first posses- 
sive, and understood to the other; as, ' I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old 
patron and benefactor;' 'Whose gloiy did he emulate? He emulated Caesar's, 
the greatest general of antiquity.' " 

Such constructions should not be used. Instead of the sentences quoted 
by Mr. Mun-ay, we may say, " I reside at the house (or mansion, or seat) of 



SYNTAX. 169 

Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor;" " Whose glory did he emu- 
late? He emulated that (or the glory) of Caesar, the greatest general of anti- 
quity." So, instead of, " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and pro- 
phet of the Jewish people," we may say. " These psalms were written by 
David," &c. Instead of, " I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and sta- 
tioner," we may say, " I left the parcel at the residence (or shop) of Smith, 
the bookseller and stationer." 

Remark 9. Nothing, except some necessary modifying word, should 
come between the possessive case and the name of the object possessed. 
" She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understand - 
ing," should be, " She began to extol the excellent understanding of the far- 
mer, as she called him." 

Remark 10. A participial noun, either alone or modified by other words, 
may be placed after the possessive case ; as, " I am opposed to John's writ- 
ing;" " I am opposed to his devoting himself so exclusively to one subject." 

This is one of the most common idioms of the language ; and no other case 
than the possessive should be used in the preceding and similar sentences. 
Thus, when we wish to express opposition to the performance of the action, 
it is incorrect to say, " I am opposed to John writing." 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Earth's serenest prospects fly, 

Hope's enchantments never die. Montgomery. 

Thy father's virtue is not thine. 

This man was taken by the duke's officers, who, in obe- 
dience to their master's directions, had driven him from all 
his hiding places. — 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

His brothers offence is not his. A mothers tenderness, 
and a fathers care, are natures gifts for mans advantage. 
John Thomson his book. Lucy Townsend her book. 

[Rem. 2.] This book is your's. The tree is known by 
it's fruit. You have left your books, and have taken our's 
and their's. 

[Rem. 3 ] The bill passed the Lords' house but was de- 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

feated in the Commons' house. The Representatives' house 
commenced to day. 

[Rem. 4.] The world's government is not left to chance. 
She married my son's wife's brother. The extent of the 
prerogative of the King of England is sufficiently ascertain-' 
ed. It was necessary to have the physician's and the sur- 
geon's advice. John and Andrews occupation was that of 
fishermen. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to 
suffer calamities. 

[Rem 5.] The Bishop's Landoff excellent book. Doc- 
tor's Norwood practice. He is at Smith's the bookseller. 
. The King's of England son. 

[Rem. 6.] Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington's ex- 
ploits. John Brown of Haddington's works. Edward the 
Second of England's Queen. 

[Rem. 9.] She praised the child's, as she called him, 
ready wit. They condemned King Corney's, as he was cal- 
led, dissipated habits. 

[Rem. 10.] He was averse to the nation involving itself 
in war. They have no notion of the same person possessing 
different accomplishments. What is the reason of this per- 
son dismissing his servant so hastily ? He being a rich man 
did not make him a happy man. Much depends on your 
pupil composing frequently. I am opposed to him going. 
Such will ever be the consequence of youth associating with 
vicious companions. 

Rule IX. 
The object of a transitive verb is put in the ob- 
jective case; as, " He built a house." 

Remark 1. An infinitive, a participial noun, or a clause, may supply the 
place of the objective ; as, " Boys love to play;" " Boys love playing-" " I 
know that you are happy;" " I know who lives here." 



SYNTAX. 17| 

Remark 2. When the subject and object are nouns, the object must be 
placed after the verb, because the position in the sentence determines the 
case; thus, '-'Alexander conquered Darius? not "Darius conquered Alex- 
ander." 

But when pronouns are used, the object may be placed before the verb ; 
as, "Him followed his next mate f " This subject he has examined." 

As relatives and interrogatives stand as near as possible to the beginning 
of their clauses, they always precede the verb ; as, " He whom I serve is 
eternal ;" "Whom do you serve?" 

Remark 3. The object of the verb is omitted, when it is something inde- 
finite, or easily supplied; as, " John reads." 

Remark 4. Some intransitive verbs are followed by an objective of kin- 
dred signification to their own ; as, " He runs a race;" " They live a happy 
life" Allied to this construction are such expressions as the following : 
" Death grinned horribly a ghastly smile;" "Her lips blush deeper sweets;" 
" Groves, whose rich trees wept oderous gums and balm;" " From that sap- 
phire fount the crisped brooks ran nectar." 

Remark 5. Transitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as intransi- 
tive ; as, " I must premise with three circumstances ;" " I cannot allow of 
that." The proposition should be erased in each one of these sentences. To 
locate is sometimes improperly used as intransitive ; as, " He has located in 
Cincinnati;" by which is meant that he has become a resident of Cincinnati. 

Remark 6. Intransitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as transi- 
tive; as, he repented him of his design." Him should be erased. It is not 
elegant to say, "'Re grows corn ;" or, "This land grows corn." We should say 
" He raises or cultivates corn ;" "This land produces corn." 

Remark 7. Some verbs may be followed by two objec- 
tives denoting the same person or thing ; as, 'Romulus cal- 
led the city Rome." 

The verbs referred to in this remark are all those verbs that in the pas- 
sive voice have a predicate nominative ; such as to choose, to appoint, to elect, 
to constitute, to render, to name, to call, to esteem, to consider, to reckon. 

After some of these verbs we may suppose an ellipsis of the verb to be ; 
as, "I consider him [to be] a good man." 

It is hardly proper to call this apposition. A noun in apposition with an- 
other noun, is annexed for the sake of explanation or description, and may be 
omitted ; But in this construction, the second noun is essential. There is quite 
a difference between, " He called Cicero, the father of his country," and' 
" He called Cicero the father of his country." In the first sentence" who was" 
may be supplied ; as, " He called Cicero, who was the father of his country." 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 8. Some verbs are followed by two objectives, one denoting a per- 
son, and the other generally denoting a thing; as, " James gave me a book;" 
" Forgive us our debts;" " John taught Mm grammar;" " He granted me a 
favor;" " Buy me a book;" " They allowed him a seat;" "It cost him a, dollar." 

A preposition is understood with the objective of the person, which must 
be expressed when this objective comes after the objective of the tbing ; as, 
" James gave a book to me ;" " They allowed a seat to him." 

Remark 9. The objective with which a preposition has been understood, 
has been mistaken for the object of the verb, and is, from this mistake, often 
made the subject of the verb in the passive voice — the other objective being 
retained after the passive; as," /was given a book by James;" "He was 
allowed a seat" Such expressions should be avoided. With the verb to ask 
and to teach, however, this construction is used by good authors ; as, "He 
was asked his opinion;" "He was taught grammar." It would be better to 
say, •' His opinion was asked;" "Grammar was taught him ;"or, " He learned 
grammar." 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Come, behold the doings of Jehovah ! 
What astonishing things he hath wrought in the earth. 
He quieteth wars to the end of the earth ; 
The bow he breaketh in pieces, and cutteth asunder the spear ; 
The chariots he burnetii with fire. 

Yet him, whose heart is ill at ease, 
Such peaceful solitudes displease. 

John calls me his friend, but James considers me his 
enemy. The Americans chose George Washington presi- 
dent. 

Teach me submission to thy will. Give us our daily 
bread. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

Who did he see? He that is idle and mischievous, reprove 
sharply. They that honor me, I will honor. Who do you 
think I saw? Who did he marry? The man, who he raised 
from obscurity, is dead. His wrath will consume ye both. 
This is a friend who you must receive cordially. He who 
committeth the offence, thou shouldst punish, not I who am 
innocent. 



SYNTAX. 173 

[Rem. 9.] He was denied the privilege. We were shown 
several beautiful pictures. He was promised the situation. 
He was told this fact some time ago. I was offered the em- 
ployment. You were paid a high compliment. He was 
afforded an opportunity. 

Rule X. 

Prepositions are followed by the objective case; 
as, "He spoke to me." 

Remark 1. A preposition may be followed by a participial noun, either 
alone, or modified by other words ; as, " He is engaged in writing;" " He ac- 
cused me of having- defrauded him." 

Remark 2. The preposition about is sometimes followed by the infinitive 
mood ; as, " He is about to go." 

Other prepositions, especially for, were fonnerly placed before the infini- 
tive ; as, " What went ye out for to see 1 " 

For is sometimes placed before the infinitive with its subject in the ob- 
jective ; as, " This is a dangerous opinion for men to entertain." Here for 
shows the relation between dangerous andmerc to entertain — not men merely. 
[See Rule xi.] 

Remark 3. Some prepositions are followed by adverbs ; as, at once, for 
ever, from above, from afar. The adverbs, in such cases, are equivalent to 
nouns ; thus, at once is equivalent to at one time. In some instances a noun 
may be supplied ; as, " From [places which are] afar." 

From hence, From thence, 8?c. are often used, though the-preposition is 
unnecessary. 

From is sometimes placed before adjuncts ; as, " He came from under the 
tree?'' In such cases a noun may generally be supplied after from; thus, " He 
came from [his position] under the tree." 

Remark 4. The preposition is sometimes placed after the objective ; as, 
"Though brook and floweret never grow 
My dark, unwarming shade below," Campbell. 

In familiar language, it is allowable to place prepositions after relatives 
and interrogatives which depend on them ; as, " Whom did he speak to?" in- 
stead of "To whom did he speak?" 

Remark 5. Home, and nouns denoting extent of space, 
and degree of difference, are put in the objective case with* 
16 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

out a preposition ; as, " He went home;" " I was there five 

years;" ** He rode forty miles that day" " The pole is ten feet 

long ;" " This is a great deal better than that." 

A preposition may be supplied with some of these ; as, " He went [to] 
home ;" " I was there [during] five years ;" " This is [by] a great deal better 
than that;" " He rode forty miles [on] that day." "With others it is difficult to 
say what preposition may be supplied. Some say, " He rode [through] forty 
miles;" " The pole is long [to] ten feet" 

'Remark 6. The objective is used without a preposition 
after the adjective worth, and sometimes after like, near, and 
nigh; as, " He is like [to] his father." 

Some consider worth, as used above, a noun, with of the understood before 
it, and of after it ; thus, " This hat is [of the] -worth [of] five dollars." Mr. 
Goold Brown and others call it a preposition. But it is used as an adjective 
by ancient writers ; as, " The more is he worth and worthi." Piers Plough- 
man. In the following passage from Wiclif it has to connected with it : " If 
the salt vanishe away, wherynne schal it be salted? To nothing is it worth 
over." Worth means equal in value, and to may be supplied after ; thus, 
" This hat is worth, [equal in value to] five dollars." 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to thee, 
"Whether the summer clothe the general earth 
With greenness, or the redbreast sit and sing 
Betwixt the tufts of snow on the bare branch 
Of mossy apple-tree, while the nigh thatch 
Smokes in the sun-thaw. Coleridge. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

He went with Prettyman and I. To who did you speak? 
"Who did you speak to? Who does it belong to? It was 
divided between he and I. Let no quarrel occur among ye. 
From he that is needy turn not away. It was said by some- 
body, I know not who, 

Rule XL 

The infinitive has sometimes a subject in the 
objective case; as, "I believe him to be an honest 



SYNTAX. 17^ 

man;" "He commanded the horse to be saddled'" 
"I confess myself to be in fault;" "Let him be pun- 
ished." 

Remark 1. Him, in the first sentence quoted, is not the object of the verb 
believe, but the subject of to be. In the second sentence, horse is not the object 
of commanded — it is not ineant that a command was given to the horse. 

Remark 2. The objective, in such cases, is equivalent to 
the nominative with that, and the infinitive to a finite verb ; 
thus, " I believe that he is an honest man ;" " He commanded 
that the horse should be saddled" 

Remark 3. When the infinitive with its subject is the subject of another 
verb, it is introduced by for; as, "For you to go is better ;'' " It is better for 
you to go." 

" It is better for you to go'' may also mean, " To go is better for you." This 
is a different construction : for expresses the relation between better and you; 
but, as it is used in the preceding paragraph, it serves merely to introduce 
the infinitive with its subject. 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

I wish you to learn. I acknowledge him to be a worthy 
man. He took it to be me. I supposed him to be a gentle- 
man. That will cause you to be despised. Will you let him 
be ruined ? Let us go. For me to leave you is necessary. 
It is pleasant for brethren to dwell together in unity. I dis- 
covered John to be a scholar. I found him to be a villain. 



Rule XII. 

The infinitive mood may depend on a verb, an 
adjective, or a noun; as, u Cease to do evil;" "He 
is anxious to learn;" "He has a desire to learn." 

Remark 1. The infinitive sometimes depends on the preposition about ; as 
" He is about to learn." 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. The infinitive is sometimes used after so as, to denote a result ; 
as, " They unite so as to form one whole ;" " The difficulties were so great as 
to deter him." 

The infinitive is often used elliptically after than ; as, " Nothing makes a 
man suspect much, more than to know little [does]." 

Remarks. The infinitive is sometimes used to denote a purpose ; as, 
"Those who came to scoff remained to pray.'''' In this sense it is often pre- 
ceded by in order ; thus, " Those who came in order to scoff, remained in or- 
der to pray." The preposition for was formerly used before the infinitive 
denoting a purpose ; as, " What went ye out for to see ?" 

Remark 4. The infinitive, especially in the passive voice, is often used to 
denote obligation or necessity, as " This is a thing to be desired." The verb 
to be is sometimes expressed in such cases ; as, " This is a thing which is to be 
desired." 

Remark 5. The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely; as, " To confess 
the truth, I was in fault." Here to confess has no dependence on other words. 
Which is might be supplied, if the infinitive were placed after the other clause; 
thus, "I was in fault, which is to confess the truth." 

Remark 6. The infinitive is often construed like a noun, and may be the 
subject of a verb, or the object, or stand as the predicate nominative ; as, " To 
play is pleasant ;" " Boys love to play ; "To study is not to play." 

Remark 7. After the active voice of the verbs bid, dare, 
feel, hear, let, make, need, see, the infinitive is used without to ; 
as, " He bids me come ;" "I saw him write ;" " We heard 
him tell the story." 

To is generally expressed after the passive voice of these verbs ; as, " He 
was seen to write." 

The verbs after may, can, must, Spc, are infinitives with to omitted. 

Remark 8. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I believed him [to 
be] honest." So to be in the passive infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, "I 
supposed him [to be] cured; "He heard the letter [to be] read." 

Remark 10. The perfect infinitive is sometimes improperly used for the 
imperfect or present ; as, " Yesterday I hoped to have seen you," The per- 
fect infinitive represents an action as past at the time referred to ; but this in- 
finitive is used to express an action, which, though past at the time of speak- 
ing, was not so at the time to which the finite verb refers. This sentence 
should be, "Yesterday I hoped to see yo?*." 

If we intend to refer the seeing to the time denoted by yesterday, and the 
hoping to some previous time, we should say, " I had hoped to see you yes- 
terday." 



SYNTAX. 177 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Cease to do evil. Learn to do well. Be not anxious to 
acquire wealth. A friend should be willing to bear a friend's 
infirmities. He has a wish to do good. We are under ob- 
ligation to assist the poor. I am not so wicked as to act so. 
He managed the business so as to pay his debts. This is a 
consummation devoutly to be wished. The old are to be re- 
spected. To be candid, I am sorry to see you. Did you 
hear him say so 1 He saw me do it. You need not be 
alarmed. I saw the boat launched. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

Cease do evil. Please excuse my absence. It is better 
to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. You ought not 
walk so fast. 

[Rem. 7.] They need not to run so fast. He bade me 
to go home. Let no rash promise to be made. I have seen 
some persons to conduct, themselves very discreetly. I felt 
a chilling sensation to creep over me. 

He was seen enter the house. He was heasd make this 
assertion. They were bid come into the house. 

[Rem. 10.] I found him better than I expected to have 
found him. 1 intended to have started yesterday. I was 
once inclined to have gone on shore. I was then disposed 
to have yielded. I cannot excuse the remissness of those 
whose business it should have been to have interposed their 
good offices. They would have found it difficult to have ac- 
complished their purpose. We have done no more than it 
was our duty to have done. It would have been no difficult 
matter to have compiled a volume of such amusing precedents. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule XIII 

Participles are modified in the same way as their 
verbs are. 

Thus, if the verb is followed by the objective case, so is 
the participle; as, " He sees me," "Seeing me," "Having seen 
me." 

If the verb has two objectives, the participle has also ; 
as. " He calls him John," "Calling him John," "Having called 
him John." 

If the verb takes a predicate nominative, so does the par- 
ticiple ; as, " He is a judge ;" "Being a judge," "Having been 
a judge." 

The same adjuncts that modify the verb, modify the par- 
ticiple ; as, "He speaks of me," " Speaking of me." "Having 
spoken of me." 

Note. The participle is modified like the verb in the same voice. 

Remark!, The participial noun, like the infinitive, has 
the properties both of a noun and a verb ; both it and the in- 
finitive are modified just as participles are. See Rule vi. 
Rem. 5. 

Remark 2. The participial nou.ii may be used either in the nominative or 
objective, but not in the possessive case. It may be the subject of a verb, or 
the object of a verb, or of a preposition, and at the same time have its own 
object; thus, "Its excesses maybe restrained without destroying its influ- 
ence ;» " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." In the first 
sentence destroying is a participial noun in the objective after the preposition 
without, and influence is in the objective after destroying; in the second, ex- 
pressing is the object of the verb to avoid, and himself is the object of ex- 
pressing. 

Remark 3. When the participle is preceded by an arti- 
cle, it must be followed by of, and is construed simply as a 
noun ; as, "By the observing of 'these rules." The should not 



SYNTAX. 179 

be used without of, nor of without the, though both may gen- 
erally be omitted. Thus, we may say, "By observing these 
rules," or, "By the observing of 'these rules ;" but not, "By the 
observing these rules," or, "By observing of these rules." 

If the verb is followed by of, the participial noun is also ; as, " He spoke 
of these rules," "By speaking of these rules." 

Remark 4. When the participle is used simply as a noun, it cannot be 
modified by adverbs, as the participial noun may be ; thus, it is incorrect to 
say' " For the more easily reading of large numbers ;" but "JFor reading 
large numbers more easily " is correct 

Remark 5. The participial noun is often connected with the possessive 
case; as, "I have some recollection of Ms father's being a judge." 

Mr. G-oold Brown and others suppose judge to be in the possessive case in 
apposition withfather's; Dr. Bullions says that it is in the objective. It is 
simply the predicate nominative. See Rule. vi. Rem. 5. 

Remarks. Mr. Brown, has not shown his usual acuteness in treating of 
the participle. He seems to consider the participial noun as simply a partici- 
ple — the adjective-form of the verb, and this mistake has caused him to find 
fault with some of the most common constructions of the language, such as ( 
" He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." He says, " If these 
examples are good English, (for the point is questionable), the verbs are all 
intransitive, and the participles relate to the nominatives going before, as in 
the text quoted in the preceding observation." * "The analogy of general 
grammar," says Mr, B., " evidently requires in such cases the infinitive or a 
noun." 

The truth is, that the participle in such cases is a verbal noun, and allied 
to the infinitive ; in the German and Greek, for instance, the infinitive is gen- 
erally used when in English the participial noun is employed^ In the first 
of the following sentences, expressing is a simple participle — an adjective ; 
in the second, it is a noun : " He reproved John, expressing himself very 
severely ;" " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." But Mr. 
Brown seems to think that expressing is alioays an adjective. 

Remark 7. When the auxiliary perfect participle, (or the passive, which 
is the same in form), and the past tense of the verb differ in form, one is often 
incorrectly used for the other ; thus, " I done " is often used for "I did," " I 
seen " for " I saw," " I have went " for " I have gone," " I have wrote " for 
" I have toritten." Such errors should be carefully avoided. See List of Ir- 
regular Verbs, Second Class. 

* The text is, " They continued asking him." Here ashing may be considered a 
participle belonging to they, and not a participial noun — the object of the verb con- 
tinued. But this is a different construction from that mentioned above. 

t See quotation from Archbishop Whately,pp. 80, 81. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercises to be Parsed. 

I saw a man cutting wood. The young maiden was seen 
standing on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, and 
extending her hands towards heaven. Having lost his wealth 
he was deserted. He employs part of his time in teaching 
his brother arithmetic. By yielding to temptation, we be- 
come less able to resist it. After having read the book, I re- 
turned it. Judas, surnamedlscariot, betrayed Christ. There 
is no doubt of his being a great statesman. 

MODEL. 

" I saw a man cutting wood.'' 
Cutting, 
Is the imperfect active participle of the verb to cut; it belongs to the noun 
man, according to Rule ii. 

Wood, 
Is a common noun &c. ; in the objective case — the object of the transitive 
participle cutting. Rule xiii, and Rule ix. 

" He employs part of his time in teaching his brother arithmetic." 
Teaching, 
Is a participial noun from the verb to teach ; in the objective case after 
the preposition in. Rule x. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

[Rem. 3.] By the obtaining wisdom, you will command 
esteem. By obtaining of wisdom, you will command esteem. 
In avoiding of one error do not fall into another. This was 
a forsaking his duty. 

[Rem. 7.] This man been here yesterday. Cain slain 
his brother. I seen you. He done it. You have not did 
as I told you. He has broke the cup. Toasts were drank. 
I have drank enough. The ground is froze. He run a mile. 
Some one has took my pen. The bird has forsook her nest. 



SYNTAX. 181 

He has spoke an hour. Your knife has been stole. The 
letter is wrote. I have chose you. That tree has fell down. 
The hogs have eat the apples. The tree was shook by the 
wind. He drunk too much. He has began to study. I 
begun to be afraid. 

Rule XIV. 
A preposition shows the relation between a noun 
or pronoun and some preceding word. 

See Etymology of Prepositions, and Rule x. 

Note. The word preceding refers to the natural order. 

Remark 1 . The noun or pronoun is sometimes omitted ; as, " He is a 
man [whom] I should like to become acquainted with ;" " He gave assistance 
to [him] whoever had need of it." 

Remark 2. The preceding word is sometimes omitted; as, " [To speak] 
in a word, he is rained." 

Remark 3. Two prepositions are sometimes placed before the same noun 
or pronoun ; as, " He came from, and is now returning to, France." This is 
inelegant; it should be, " He came from France, and is now returning to it.' 
Such expressions are allowable in forms of law. 

Remark 4. We should take care to use the proper preposition in every 
instance. Some improprieties are here noticed. 

" He was dependent of [on] the Papal crown." 

" He was eager of [in] recommending that measure." 

" He found the greatest difficulty of [in] writing." 

" I have no occasion of [for] his services." 

" This had a great share of [in] urging him." 

" He has a capacity of [for] enjoyment." 

" You have bestowed them to [upon] the most deserving." 

"He accuses me for [of] having done this." 

" He has a great abhorrence to [of] such men." 

"You have a prejudice to [against] my cause." 

" There is no need for [of] his assistance." 

" Her sobriety is no derogation to [from] her understanding." 

" He died for [of] thirst." 

" This is very different to [from] that." 

" He is reconciled with [to] the king." 



18 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" They have a great resemblance with [to] each other." 

"That was agreeable with [to] his principles." 

" Virtue and vice differ widely with [from] each other." 

" You may safely confide on [in] him." 

"He does not profit from [by] experience." 

" You may rely in [on] what I tell you." 

" This tale is founded in [on] facts." 

" They have quarreled among [with] each other." 

" They must be followed with [by ] appropriate prepositions." 

_ Remark 5. A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment ; a taste for it 
, implies capacity for enjoyment. 

We are disappointed of a thing, when we cannot get it ; and we are dis- 
appointed zn it, when we have it, and find it does not answer our expecta- 

In is used before the names of countries, cities, and large towns • and at 
before the names of villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant 
countries; thus, -He lives in Prance, or in Philadelphia;" "He lives at 
Houghton ;" " He resides at Rome." 

In is often improperly used for into, to denote entrance, &c. ; as " He 
went in (into) the house." 

Behveen or betwixt has reference to two objects, or classes of objects • 
when the reference is to more than two, among or amidst must be used • as' 
He divided it between John and James ;" « He divided it among John, Ja^nes 
ana William.;' 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

You will gain happiness by a life of virtue. By a life of 
virtue you will gain happiness. To a man of energy, this is 
easy. By close attention to study, he became learned. In 
what character he was admitted, is unknown. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

[Rem. 3.] The pronoun is governed by, and agrees with, 
the preceding word. He came to, but was driven from, the 
house. 

[Rem. 4.] She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. We 
can fully confide on none but the truly good. We should 



SYNTAX. 183 

entertain no prejudice to such things. She has an abhorrence 
to all deceitful conduct. The politeness of the world has 
the same resemblance with benevolence, that the shadow 
has with the substance. 

[Rem. 5.] When we have had a true taste for the 
pleasures of virtue, we can have no taste of those of vice. 
We are often disappointed of things, which before possession 
promised much enjoyment. It rained so violently that we were 
disappointed in our walk. They resided some time at Italy. 
He lives at Boston. He ran out of one house in another. 
Let us go in that garden. He threw it in the water. The 
bird new up in the tree. 

Rule XV. 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

[See etymology of adverbs. .] 

Remark 1. Adverbs should be placed as near to the words which they 
modify, as they can be, without producing harshness. 

Note. The same remark applies to adjuncts. Any more definite rule 
would be liable to so many exceptions as to be nearly useless. 

Such adverbs as only, merely, chiefly* are frequently misplaced ; thus, "I 
only saw John, and not James ;" " I saw John only, but did not speak to him." 
The first sentence should be, "I saw only John," or " I saw-rFohn only ;" the 
second should be, "I only saw John." 

Remark 2. In familiar language, here, there and where axe used for hither, 
thither and whither. 

Remark 3. Two negatives should not be used to express a negation, be- 
cause they destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative ; thus, "Nor 
did they not deserve the condemnation," means that they did deserve it. 

Remark 4. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs, nor adverbs as 
adjectives; "He writes beautiful," should be, "He writes beautifully;' 1 
" The a Jove lines," should be, " The preceding lines ;" " Thine often infirmi- 
ties," should be, " Thy frequent infirmities." 

* See etymology of adverbs, Remarks 1, 2, 3, 4. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercises to be Parsed. 

Is it not sweet to think, hereafter, 

When the spirit leaves this sphere, 
Love, with deathless wing, shall waft her 

To those she long hath mourned for here ? 
Hearts, from which 't was death to sever, 

Eyes, this world can ne'er restore, 
There, as warm, as bright as ever, 

Shall meet us and be lost no more. T. Moore. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

[Rem. I ] We should not be overcome by present events 
totally. He was pleasing not often, because he was vain 
In the proper disposition of adverbs, the sound carefully re- 
quires to be consulted as well as the sense. We alwavs 
should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

Wanted a young man to take care of some horses, of a 
religious turn of mind. 

The following verses were written by a young man who 
has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement. 

He only read one book, and not two. He read the book 
only, but did not keep it. He chiefly spoke of virtue, and not 
of vice. He only reads English, and not French. 

[Rem. 3.] I never drink nothing. I cannot see to write 
no more. Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of 
disguise. Will he never be no better ? I am resolved not 
to do so, neither at present, nor at any other time. 

[Rem. 4.] She walks graceful. He spoke eloquent. 
Did he arrive safely ? The boat moves rapid. He spoke 
harsh to her. His expressions sounded harshly. 



SYNTAX. 185 

Rule XVI. 
Conjunctions connect words and propositions. 

Remark 1. The conjunction is sometimes omitted ; as, " They confess the 
power, (and) wisdom and love of their creator;" " I believe (that) he is a 
good man." 

Remark 2. Some conjunctions are used before the first of two, and some- 
times more, connected -words or clauses, to mark the connexion more forci- 
bly; as, "Both John and James were there." Here and connects John and 
James, and both is used to mark the connection more forcibly. Neither and 
either are used in the same way before nor and or; as, "Neither John nor 
James was there." 

Remark 3. After the conjunctions than, though, and if, and also after 
as* there is often an ellipsis; as, " My punishment is greater than /that is 
tohich) I can bear ;" " My punishment is as great as (that is which) I can 
bear;" " I love wisdom better than (I love) riches ;" "False flew the shaft, 
though (it was) pointed well ;" " It will answer, if (it is) well executed." 

Remark 4. After than the objective case of the relative pronoun is used, 
even when any other word would be in the nominative ; as, " Satan, than 
whom, Belzebub excepted, none higher sat." Milton. This is an anomaly, 
which some grammarians explain by supposing that than was formerly used 
as a preposition. 

Remark 5. As frequently joins to a word another denoting character or 
office, fyc; as, " They employed him as a clerk ;" " He was employed as a 
clerk." After the infinitive, or a participial noun, as may be placed before a 
noun without connecting it to any preceeding noun ; as, " He wished to be 
employed as a clerk." 

Such constructions may perhaps be considered, at least in their origin 
elliptical; Thus, "They employed him as a clerk (is employed)." As, thus 
used, would be an adverb. 

Remark 6. Two parts of different propositions may be connected, when 
the remaining part of the one is the same as that of the other ; as, " This 
always has been, and always will be, admired." 

But, if the remaining part of one is not the same as that of the other, 
the two parts should not be connected. Thus, it is incorrect to say, " This 
always has, and always -will, be admired," because, if be admired is added to 
the first part, it will be, has be admired. 

" He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cynthio.'' This is in- 
accurate, because we cannot say, " He was more beloved as Cynthio." It 

* See " Words belonging to different Classes," Remark 3. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

should be, " He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired " — 
as Cynthio being understood. 

Remark 7. After the comparative degree, and after other and else, which 
partake of the nature of the comparative, than is used to introduce the latter 
term of comparison ; as, " He is greater than I ;" " It is no other than he ;" 
" What else do you expect than this ?" 

Remark 8. After expressions denoting doubt, fear, and denial, but, but 
that, or lest is often improperly used instead of that ; as, " I do not doubt but 
that he is honest;" "I am afraid lest he may not return." 

Remark 9. After conjunctions denoting doubt or contin- 
gency, shall and should ought not to be omitted, unless futu- 
rity is implied. " Though man be a sinner, yet God is mer- 
ciful to him," should be, " Though man is a sinner," &c. 

Remark 10. Mr. Brown's thirteenth rule is, "When verbs are connected 
by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
separate nominatives expressed." Mr. Murray, Dr. Bullions, and other dis- 
tinguished grammarians lay down the same principle. That they are mistaken, 
the following sentences, taken at random from several authors, -will show : 
" So that neither angel, man, nor world, could stand, or can stand." Bacon 
" Who was and is from everlasting." Id. 
" Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy, 
And will not let belief take hold of him." Shakspeare. 

" Lucretius, without impeachment, versifies his Epicurism to Ernmius, 
and had the honor." Milton. 

" We have not found them all, Lords and Commons, nor ever shall do." Id. 

" He was skilful in many languages, and had, by reading and composition, 
attained the full mastery of his own.'' Johnson. 

" He yet shared only the common weakness of mankind, and might be 
no less sincere than his opponents." Id. 

" Here thy temple was and is. Byron. 

" He wishes and can tvish for this alone. Coleridge. 

" He went like one that had been stunned, 
And is of sense forlorn." Id. 

". One eye had lost its pupil, and was glaring. W. Irving. 

" Was yet so peculiar in its causes and character, and has been folloioed, 
and must still be followed. Daniel Webster. 

" All is still there, and blank, and lifeless, and has been so for ages." Buck- 
minster. 

" They had danced, and feasted, and were now in deep sleep." Miss Sedg- 
wick. 



SYNTAX. 



187 



In some of the preceding quotations, separate nominatives might be 
used, but in others, such a construction would be inelegant. 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Many a vanished year and age, 

And tempest's breath, and battle's rage, 

Have swept o'er Corinth; yet she stands, 

A fortress formed to Freedom's hands. 

The whirlwind's -wrath, the earthquake's shock, 

Have left untouched her hoary rock, 

The keystone of a land, which still, 

Though fallen, looks proudly on that hill. Byron. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

[Rem. 6.] Such works always have, and always will, be 
read. The first proposal was essentially different and infe- 
rior to the second. He is more bold and active, but not so 
wise and studious, as his companion. This dedication may 
serve for almost any book that has, or ever shall be, publish- 
ed. The intentions of these philosophers might, and proba- 
bly were, good. They differ and contend against one another. 

[Rem. 7.] He has little more of the scholar besides the 
name. They had no sooner risen but they applied them- 
selves to their studies. These savages seemed to have no 
other element but war. What else do you expect but dis- 
grace 1 It was no other but his father. This is nothing else 
but treason. Have you no other proof except this 1 He no 
sooner sees him but he runs to embrace him. 

[Rem. 8 ] I do not doubt but that he is just. I have no 
fear lest he will succeed. I have no doubt but he has merit. 
I do not deny but that he is energetic. 

[Rem. 9.] Though he be poor, he is contented. If he 
know the way, he does not need a guide. I respect him, 
though he chide me. I cannot tell whether he be the same 
that we saw. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rule XVII. 

Interjections have no grammatical connection 
with other words. 

Remark 1. Ah is sometimes placed before the objective case of the pro- 
noun of the first person ; as, "Ah me!" This seems to be, as it were, an ob- 
jective independent. The same construction is used without the interjection ; 
as, "Me miserable ! which way shall I fly ! " 

Some explain this construction by supposing an ellipsis ; "Ah ! [pity] me." 

Remark 2. Ellipses frequently occur after interjections ; as, " O ! that I 
had the wings of a dove ! " " O for a closer walk with God ! " " Oh ! a chair.' 
In the first two quotations i" wish may be inserted after the interjections ; in 
the last, I wish for; or give me, may be used. 

Exercises to be Parsed. 

Oh ! I am dumb. Alas ! unhappy man ! what hast thou 
done ! for a minute more of life ! Ah ! unhappy me ! 



PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

A verse is a certain number of accented and unaccented 
syllables, arranged in a regular order, and constituting a line 
of poetry. 

A foot is a portion of a verse, consisting of two or more 
syllables combined according to accent. 

A straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accent- 
ed, and a curved line, (v_,), that it is unaccented. 

Remark. In the poetry of some languages syllables are long and short, 
instead of accented and unaccented. A long syllable occupies twice the 
time of a short one. 

The principal feet are, 

The Iambus, w — The Anapest, w w — 

The Trochee, — w The Dactyl, — w w 

The Spondee, The Amphibrach, w — w 

The Pyrrhic, w — The Tribrach, www 

The iambus has the second syllable accented, and the first unaccented; 
as, devote, create. 

The trochee has theirs* syllable accented, and the second unaccented; 
as, noble, hamlet. 

The anapest has the last syllable accented, and the first two unaccent- 
ed ; as, acquiesce, misbehave. 

The dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccent- 
ed ; as, laborer, positive. 

The spondee consists of two accented syllables ; as, the pale moon. 
The pyrrhic consists of two unaccented syllables ; as, on the tall tree. 
The amphibrach has the middle syllable accented, and the first and 
last unaccented ; as, dofnestic. 

17 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The tribrach consists of three unaccented syllables ; as, numerable. 

The pyrrhic, spondee, and tribrach occur occasionally. The amphi- 
brach is the iambus with an additional short syllable. 

If a verse i^> composed principally of iambusses, it is 
called iambic verse ; if of trochees, trochaic; if of anapests, 
anapestic; if of dactyls, dactylic. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syllables 
of different verses. 

Blank verse is without rhyme. 

Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which 
it is composed. 

A verse which is complete is called acatalectic; one which 
is deficient is called catalectic; one which has a redundant 
syllable is called a hyper catalectic, or hypermeter. 



Iambic Verse. 

1 . Of one foot. 

'Tis sweet 
To meet. 

2. Of two feet. 

Sweet rii|ral scene 
Of flocks [ and green ! 

3. Of three feet. 

The stars | with deep | amaze 
Stand fixed J with stead I fast gaze, 

4. Of four feet. 

Strange sounds j along j the chan|cel passed, 
The banners waved without a blast. 

5. Of five feet. 

All crimes | shall cease, | and an|cient fraud | shall fail; 
Returning Justice lift aloft her scale. 



PROSODY. 191 

6. Of six feet. 

His heart j is sad, { bis hope | is gone, j his light | is passed, 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the ling'ring day. 

7. Of seven feet. 

There's beau|ty all | around [ our paths, | if but | our watch|ful eyes 
Can trace it 'midst familiar things, and through their lowly guise. 

Each of these species of iambic verse may have an addi- 
tional short syllable. Thus, 

1. Upon [ a mountain. 

2. When on | her Ma|ker's bo[som.' 

4. But hail, | thou god|dess, sage | and ho|ly. 

5. What slen|der youth, | bedewed | with li|quid oldour. 

6. Whose front | can brave | the storm, \ but will | not rear | the fi6w|Sr. 

7. To scat|ter o'er 1 his path|of fame | bright hues | of gem| like show|ers. 

Iambic verse of five feet is called Heroic verse. 
A verse of six feet is called an Alexandrine. 
An Elegiac stanza consists of four heroic verses rhyming 
alternately ; as, 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

The Spenserian stanza consists of eight heroic verses, fol- 
lowed by an Alexandrine. The first verse rhymes with the 
the third ; the second with the fourth, fifth and seventh ; and 
the sixth with the eight and ninth ; as, 

And greedy Avarice by him did ride, 
Upon a camel laden all with gold ; 
Two iron coffers hung on either side, 
With precious metal full as they might hold ; 
And in his lap a heap of coin he told ; 
For of his wicked pelf his god he made, 
And unto hell himself for money sold : 
Accursed usury was all his trade ; 
And right and wrong alike in equal balance weighed. 



1 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This stanza is named from the poet Spenser. It is the measure in which 
his " Fairy dueen " is written. 

Iambic verse of seven feet is usually divided into two 
lines ; the first containing four feet, the second three ; as, 

When all thy mercies, O my God ; 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view I'm lost 

In wonder, love, and praise. 

This is what is called common meter. 
Long meter has four iambuses in a verse. 
Short meter has three iambuses, in the first, second, and 
fourth verses, and four in the third. 



Trochaic Verse. 

1 . Of one foot. 

Straying, 
Playing. 

2. Of two feet. 

Rich the" [ treasure, 
Sweet the pleasure. 

3. Of three feet. 

Go where | glory | waits thee, 
But when fame elates thee. 

4. Of four feet. 

Maids are | sitting | by the | fountain, 
Bright the moon o'er yonder mountain. 

5. Of five feet. 

All that | walk on | foot or | ride in [ chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. Of six feet. 

On a | mountain, | stretched be |neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 



PROSODY. 193 

In iambic verse the accent is on the even syllables ; in 
trochaic, on the odd. 

Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; thus, 

1. On thy | state 
Whirlwinds wait. 

2. And at | night they | sleep 
In the rocking deep. 

3. Thee the | voice, the | dance 6|bey, 
Tempered to thy warbled lay. 

4. Idle j after ] dinner ! in his | chair 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! | bird thou [ never | wert, 
That from heav'n or near it , poured thy full heart. 
6. Night and | morning | were at j meeting | over | Waterloo; 

Cocks had sung their earliest greeting; faint and low they crew. 

In the last two forms each line is usually divided into two. 
Thus, 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! 
Bird thou never wert, &c. 

Night and morning were at meeting 
Over Waterloo. 

Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable, is the 
same as iambic verse, without the initial short sylhble. 



Anapestic Verse, 

1. Of one foot. 

But too far 
Each proud star. 

2. Of two feet. 

Where the sun | loves to pause, 
With so fond a delay, 

That the night only draws 
A thin veil o'er the day. 

17* 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Of three feet. 

I have found | out a, gift | for my fair, 

I have found where the wood-pigeons breed. 

4. Of four feet. 

There is not \ in the wide f world a val|ley so sweet 
As the vale in whose bosom the bright waters meet. 

The first form is ambiguous, since by putting a little more 
stress on the first syllable, we may scan it as a trochee with 
an additional long syllable. 

An additional short syllable may be added to each of 
these forms. But when a short syllable is added to the first 
form, we usually give more stress to the first syllable, and 
make two trochees. 



Dactylic Verse. 

1 . Of one foot. 

Yerily, 
Merrily. 

2. Of two feet. 

Gentle and 1 lovely fdrm> 

What dost thou \ here, 
When the fierce \ battle storm 

Bore down the [ spear? 

3. Of three feet. 

March to the | battle field [' fearlessly, 

4L Of four feet. 

Bachelor's [ Hall, what a | quare looking \ place it is-, 
Kape me from |, sich all the j, days of my \ life ! 

Sure but I | think what a \ biirnin dis| grace it is 
Never at |, all to be \ getting a, [ wife, 

A dactylic verse scarcely ever ends with a dactyl. Some- 
times one long syllable added, sometimes a trochee. Thus. 



PROSODY. 195 

Brightest and f best of the | sons of the f morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness, and J lend us thine | aid. 

Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic 
verse, for instance, admits of either of the other feet. Thus, 

Prophet of plagues, forever boding ill. 
Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
Before all temples the upright and pure. 
Brought death into the world and all our woes. 
And thunders down impetuous to the plain. 

In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is often omitted, and the verse 
becomes trochaic, with an additional long syllable. 

In trochaic verse, if the initial long syllable is omitted, the line becomes 
iambic, with an additional short syllable. 

In anapestic verse, if the two initial short syllables are omitted, the 
verse becomes dactylic, with a long syllable added . 

In dactylic verse, if the initial long syllable is omitted, the verse be- 
comes anapestic. 

By intermingling iambuses and anapests a pleasing move- 
ment is produced. This is often done by modern poets. 

Thus, 

I come, \ I come! | ye have called ! me long, 
I come | o'er the mo un| tains with light | and-TSong! 
Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening earth, 
By the winds which tell of the violet's birth, 
By the primrose stars of the shadowy grass, 
By the green leaves opening as I pass. 



Exercises in Scanning. 

( The following extracts are also suitable for Parsing Exercises.) 

Sweet moral scene 
Of flocks and green ! 
At careless ease my limbs are spread : 
All nature still 
But yonder rill, 
* And list'ning pines nod o'er my head. Young. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And ne'er did Grecian chisel trace 

A Nymph, a Naiad, or a Grace 

Of finer form, or lovelier face! 

What though the sun, with ardent frown, 

Had slightly tinged her cheek with brown, 

The sportive toil, which, short and light, 

Had dyed her glowing hue so bright, 

Served too in hastier swell to show 

Short glimpses of a breast of snow ; 

What though no rule of courtly grace 

To measured mood had trained her pace, 

A foot more light, a step more true, 

Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew : 

E'en the harebell raised its head, 

Elastic from her airy tread : 

What though upon her speech there hung 

The accents of a mountain tongue — 

Those silver sounds, so soft, so dear, 

The list'ner held his breath to hear. Sir W. Scott. 



Oft in the stilly night, 

Ere slumber's chain has bound me, 
Fond Memory brings the light 
Of other days around me ; 

The smiles, the tears, 

Of boyhood's years, 
The words of love then spoken ; 

The eyes that shone, 

Now dimmed and gone, 
The cheerful hearts now broken. T. Moore, 

What kind of verse is the following. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that accursed tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top 
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed, 
In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth 
Rose out of Chaos. Milton. 



PROSODY. 197 

Hark ! his hands the lyre explore ; 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o'er, 

Scatters from her golden urn 

Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn. Gray . 

When, around thee dying, 
Autumn leaves are lying, 

Oh ! then remember me. 
And, at night, when gazing 
On the gay hearth blazing, 

Oh ! still remember me. 
Then should music, stealing 
All the soul of feeling, 
To thy heart appealing, 

Draw one tear from thee ; 
Then let memory bring thee 
Strains I used to sing thee — 

Oh ! then remember me. T. Moore. 

What is the following stanza called ? 

To sit on the rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 
Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 
And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been ; 
To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 
With the wild flock that never needs a fold ; 
Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; 
This is not solitude ; 't is but to hold 
Converse with Nature's charms, and view her stores-enrolled. Byron. 

Come as the winds come when 

Forests are rended ; 
Come as the waves come when 

Navies are stranded — 
Faster come, faster come — 

Faster and faster — 
Child, vassal, page and groom, 

Tenant and master. Sir W. Scott. 

Come ye disconsolate, wherever ye languish, 

Come, at the shrine of God fervently kneel ; 
Here bring your wounded hearts, here tell your anguish : 

Earth has no sorrow that Heav'n cannot heal. T. Moore. 

18 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is the following stanza called ? 

For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 

This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, 

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind 1 Gray. 

Alas ! they had been friends in youth ; 

But whispering tongues can poison truth ; 

And constancy lives in realms above, 

And life is thorny ; and youth is vain : 

And to be wroth with one we love 

Doth work like madness in the brain. 

And thus it chanced, as I divine, 

With Roland and Sir Leoline. 

Each spake words of high disdain 

And insult to his heart's best brother : 

They parted — ne'er to meet again 1 

But never either found another 

To free the hollow heart from paining. 

They stood aloof, the scars remaining, 

Like cliffs which had been torn asunder ; 

A dreary sea now flows between. 

But neither heat, nor frost, nor thunder, 

Shall wholly do away, I ween, 

The marks of that which once hath been. Coleridge. 

I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute ; 

From the centre all round to the sea, 

I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Cotoper. 

Our bugles sang truce, for the night-cloud had lowered, 
And the sentinel stars set their -watch in the sky ; 

And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered, 
The weary to sleep , and the wounded to die. Campbell. 

" I hear thee speak of the better land, 
Thou callest its children a happy band ; 
Mother ! oh -where is that radiant shore ? 
Shall we not seek it, and -weep no more ? 
Is it where the flow'r of the orange blows, 
And the flre-flies glance through the myrtle boughs ?" 
— " Not there, not there, my child ! " 

" Is it where the feathery palm-trees rise, 
And the date grows ripe under sunny skies 1 
Or 'midst the green islands of glittering seas, 



PROSODY. 199 

Where fragrant forests perfume the breeze, 
And strange, bright birds, on their starry wings, 
Bear the rich hues of all glorious things ?" 
—"Not there, not there, my child ! " 

" Is it far away, in some region old, 
Where the rivers wander o'er sands of gold ? 
Where the burning rays of the ruby shine, 
And the diamond lights up the secret mine, 
And the pearl gleams forth from the coral strand ? 
Is it there, sweet mother, that better land 1 " 
— "Not there, not there, my child ! 

" Bye hath not seen it, my gentle boy ! 
Ear hath not heard its deep sounds of joy; 
Dreams cannot picture a world so fair — 
Sorrows and death may not enter there ; 
Time doth not breathe on its fadeless bloom, 
For beyond the clouds, and beyond the tomb, 

— " It is there, it is there, my child ! " Hemans. 

How many feet are wanting in the first and last lines of the 
following extracts. 

'Tis a time 
For memory and for tears. Within the deep, 
Still chambers of the heart, a spectre dire, 
Whose tones are like the wizard voice of Time 
Heard from the tomb of Ages, points its cold 
And solemn finger to the beautiful 
And holy visions, that have passed away, 
And left no shadow of their loveliness 
On the dead waste of life. Prentice. 

Now gentle gales 
Fanning their odoriferous wings, dispense 
Native perfumes, and whisper whence they stole 
Those balmy spoils. Milton. 

We do pray for mercy ; 
And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 
The deeds of mercy. Shakspeare. 

Is anything wanting in any of the following verses 1 

Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, goddess, sing 
That wrath which hurled to Pluto's reign 
The souls of mighty chiefs, untimely slain. 
Whose bones, unburied on the naked shore, 
Devouring dogs and vultures tore. 



200 english grammar. 

Poetic Pauses. 

There should be a pause at the close of every verse, 
even where no pause is required by the sense. This is called 
the final pause. 

The sentential pause, or pause for sense, requires a change 
of tone ; but, in the final pause, the voice should be merely 
suspended, without being either raised or depressed. 

In many instances, the ear can distinguish verse from prose only by means 
of the final pause. Blank verse, if the final pause is omitted, and there is no 
sentential pause at the end of the line, sounds as if it were only poetical 
prose. This will be made evident, by arranging a few verses as they would 
be read without this pause. 

" His spear, to equal which the tallest pine hewn on Nor- 
wegian hills, to be the mast of some great admiral, were but 
a wand he walked with, to support uneasy steps over the 
burning marie — not like those steps on heaven's azure ; and 
the torrid clime smote on him besides, vaulted with fire." 

Tell where the final pause should be in the preceding. It is 
heroic verse. 

The cesural pause divides the line into two equal or une- 
qual parts, and is made naturally by the voice in reading 
verse correctly. 

The shorter kinds of verse are without this pause. 

The natural place for it is near the middle of the line ; the 
sense of the passage, however, often requires it to be re- 
moved from its natural position. If it always recurred at 
the same place, the verse would be too monotonous. 

In the following heroic verses, the cesural pause is in the 

middle of the third foot, that is, in the middle of the line : 

The steer and the lion" at one crib shall meet, 
And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet. 

In the following line the pause is at the end of the third 

foot, because it cannot take place in the middle of a word. 

The crested basilisk" and speckled snake. 



PROSODY. 201 

In the following it takes place in the middle of the fourth 
foot, because all the preceding words are so intimately con- 
nected that a pause would mar the sense. 

And on the sightless eyeball" pour the day. 

It may fall even in the middle of the first foot, or of the 
last ; but then there is usually a second pause. 

But not to me returns 
Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 

No sooner had the Almighty ceased/' but all 
The multitude of angels," with a shout 
Loud" as from numbers without number," sweet 
As from blest voices" uttering joy. — 

Besides the cesural pause there are often demicesuras, or 
half pauses. Thus, 

Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze, 
■ Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent. 

Show the place of the cesural pause in the following. 

Rapt into future times, the bard begun ! 
A virgin shall conceive, a virgin bear a son ! 
From Jesse's root behold a branch arise, 
Whose sacred flower with fragrance fills the skies : 
The ethereal spirit o'er its leaves shall move, — 
And on its top descends the mystic dove. 

These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good, 
Almighty ; thine this universal frame, 
Thus wondrous fair ; thyself how wondro.us then ! 
Unspeakable, who sitst above these heavens, 
To us invisible ; or dimly seen 
In these thy lower works ; yet these declare 
Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine. 
Speak ye who best can tell, ye sons of light, 
Angels ; for ye behold him, and with songs 
And choral symphonies ; day without night, 
Circle his throne, rejoicing ; ye in heaven, 
On earth join all ye creatui-es to extol 
Him first, him last, him midst, and without end. 

19 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation treats of the points and marks 
which are used in writing. 

These marks are used chiefly to denote pauses. 

The following are the principal marks used in 
writing: 

• The Comma [,], the Semicolon [ ;], the Colon [ : ], the 
Period [ . ], the Note of Interrogation [ 1 ], the Note of 
Exclamation [! ], the Dash [ — ], and the Parenthesis [()]. 

The comma marks the shortest pause ; the semicolon, a 
pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double 
that of the semicolon ; and the period, the longest pause. 

Note. The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader. 

Comma. 

The general rule is, that a comma is used m 
those parts of a sentence in which a short pause 
is required. 

Rule I. 

In general, the comma is not used in a simple 
sentence ; as, " Hope is necessary in every condi- 
tion in life." 

But when the logical subject is rendered long by the 
addition of adjuncts to the grammatical subject, a comma 
may be placed after the logical subject ; as, " The necessity 



PUNCTUATION. 203 

of an early acquaintance with history, has always been ac- 
knowledged ;" " To be totally indifferent to praise or cen- 
sure, is a real defect in character." 

EXERCISES. 

Are the following sentences correctly 'punctuated ? 

All finery, is a sign of littleness. Idleness, is the great 
fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. The tear of 
repentance, brings its own relief. To be, contents his natu- 
ral desire. The fear of the Lord, is the beginning of wis- 
dom. 

A steady and undivided attention to one pursuit will give 
success. The punishment of the reckless disturbers of so- 
ciety tends to secure peace. 

Rule II. 

The clauses of a compound sentence are gene- 
rally separated by a comma ; as, " Phocion was 
poor, though he might have been rich ;" "Phocion, 
though he might have been rich, was poor;" "This 
principle, which had been instilled into his mind 
from his youth, influenced all his conduct;" "This 
work, said he, is amusing." 

But when the members are closely connected, the comma 
is not used ; as, " Revelation teaches us how we may attain 
happiness ;" " Principles which are instilled into the mind 
in youth, have the greatest influence." 

In the first example, the dependent clause is the object of the verb teaches, 
and is, of course, closely connected ; in the second, the relative clause modifies 
the noun principles, and forms with that noun the logical subject. 

EXERCISES. 

Are the following sentences correctly punctuated ? 
If ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise. Love not sleep 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lest thou come to poverty. Cast out the scorner and con- 
tention shall go out. 

He, that hath pity upon the poor, lendeth unto the Lord, 
He knows, how weak we are. 

Rule III. 

Two words of the same class — whether nouns, 
adjectives, verbs, or adverbs — connected by a con- 
junction, do not admit of a comma between them; 
as, " Reason and virtue answer one great aim ;" 
" He is a plain and honest man ;" " Religion ex- 
pands and elevates the mind ;" " We must live 
virtuously or viciously." 

But if the connected words have adjuncts, the comma 
may be inserted ; as, " Intemperance destroys the vigor of 
our bodies, and the strength of our minds." 

When a pause between two words will give distinctness 
or emphasis, the comma is inserted ; as, " 'Tis certain he 
could write, and cipher too ;" " A good man will love him- 
self too well to lose, and his neighbor too well to win, an 
estate by gaming." 

When the conjunction is understood, the comma is used ; 
as, " Reason, virtue answer one great aim ;" " He is a plain, 
honest man." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the errors in •punctuation in the following examples. % 
The man of virtue, and honor will be trusted. We are 

fearfully, and wonderfully made. The earth, and the moon 

are planets. She is gentle, and affectionate. 

A proper love for our country and a proper love for the 

human race are consistent with each other. He is studious 



PUNCTUATION. 205 

of change and pleased with novelty. He can read but not 
write. I mean virtue and not. selfishness. 

He was a brave pious man. She is a gentle affectionate 
woman. 

Rule IV. 

When three or more words of the same class 
are connected by conjunctions expressed or under- 
stood, the comma is used after every one but the 
last ; as, " He was a brave, wise, and pious man." 

If several nouns are connected to form a compound sub- 
ject, the comma is inserted after everyone; as, "Poetry, 
music, and painting, are fine arts." 

When words are used together in pairs, they should be 
separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Truth is fair and art- 
less, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent ;" " We 
should be moderate, whether we eat or drink, labor or sleep." 

EXERCISES. 

Insert the comma where it is required in the following sen- 
tences. 

Success generally depends on acting prudently steadily 
and vigorously. He ruined himself by self-conceit, presump- 
tion and obstinacy. He is a noble high-minded generous 
man. The sight the hearing the taste the smell and the feeling 
are the five senses. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy 
blast the prospects of many a youth. 

Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation 
and ruin are the consequences of civil war. There is a nat- 
ural difference between merit and demerit virtue and vice 
wisdom and folly. 

Rule V. 

The nominative case independent, the nomina- 
tive absolute, and the infinitive absolute, with their 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adjuncts or the words closely connected with them, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
by the comma ; as, " My son, give me thy heart ;" 
" Those happy dreams, whither have they fled ;" 
" At length, his object having been effected, he re- 
turned;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

EXERCISES. 
Insert the comma where it is required in the following sentences. 

Continue my dear child to walk in the path of virtue. 
You may go John to your seat. Shame being lost all is lost. 

And now my race of terror run 
Mine be the eve of tropic sun. 

To prevent dispute I submitted to the terms. To say the 

least they have shown great want of prudence. 

Rule VI. 

When a noun in apposition with another has 
several words connected with it, the noun and the 
words connected with it should be separated from 
the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " Paul, 
the apostle of the gentiles, was eminent for his 
zeal." 

Remark. A single noun in apposition with another is not separated from 
it by the comma ; as, " Paul the apostle was eminent for his zeal." 

EXERCISES. 
Insert the comma where it is required in the following sentences. 
Hope the balm of life soothes us under every misfortune. 
Augustus the Roman emperor was a patron of the arts. The 
emperor Augustus was a patron of the arts. Death the king 
of terrors chose a prime minister. The patriarch Joseph is 
an illustrious example of filial affection. 



PUNCTUATION. 207 

Rule VII. 

Adverbs and adjuncts, when not closely con- 
nected with some particular word in the sentence, 
are often separated from the rest of the sentence 
by the comma ; as, " Lastly, strive to preserve a 
conscience void of offence;" " He is not good ; he 
cannot, therefore, be great;" "He is, in my opinion, 
a very worthy mam" 

If adverbs and adjuncts are placed out of their natural 
order, they are generally separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a comma ; as, " Formerly, knowledge was not so 
generally diffused as it is now;" " To God, nothing is im- 
possible." 

EXERCISES. 
Where should the comma be inserted in the following sentences ? 
The work is in many respects imperfect. With gratitude 
I remember his kindness. By threads innumerable our inte- 
rests are interwoven. Besides our own interest forbids it. 
He could not in so short a time complete it. In general hon- 
esty is the best policy. Indeed you cannot convince him. 
We must not however confound frugality with parsimony. 

Rule VIII. 

Conjunctions, when they are separated by in- 
tervening words, from the clauses to which they 
belong, are generally set off by the comma ; as, 
" But, though I used every exertion, I could not 
effect it." 

Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma ; as, 
" Behold, thy king cometh unto thee." 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 
Where should the comma be inserted in the following sentences ? 
For if there is any truth in him he will attend to it. And 
if I can I will come also. But if you will tell me how I 
will avoid it. 

Rule IX. 

An adjective or participle, when it has the im- 
port of a dependent clause, is separated from the 
noun by the comma ; as, " The mother, happy in 
attending to her children, desired no change ;" "All 
mankind compose one family, assembled under the 
eye of one common Father." 

EXERCISES. 
Where should the comma he placed in the following sentences ? 
The people indignant at these outrages demanded his re- 
moval. His talents formed for great enterprises could not 
fail to render him conspicuous. Intoxicated with pleasures 
they become giddy and insolent. 

Rule X. 

The comma is generally placed where a finite 
verb is understood ; as, " From law arises security; 
from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." 

EXERCISES. 

Where should the comma be placed in the following sentences ? 

In prosperity he was too much elated — in adversity too 
despondent. The body is mortal — the soul immortal. Igno- 
rance produces vice ; and vice misery. The one succeeds 
by flattery — the other by merit. 



PUNCTUATION, 209 



Semicolon. 



The semicolon is used to separate those parts 
of a sentence which are not so closely connected 
as those which are separated by the comma, nor 
so lightly connected as those which are separated 
by the colon ; as, 

" The richest genius, like the most fertile soil, when un- 
cultivated, shoots often into the rankest weeds ; and, instead 
of vines and olives for the pleasure and use of man, produces 
to its slothful owner the most abundant crop of poisons," 

" Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the 

bottom." 

" The turf shall be my fragrant shrine ; 
My temple, Lord ! that arch of thine ; 
My censer's breath, the mountain airs ; 
And silent thoughts my only prayers." 

"Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in her opera- 
tions ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
generations will continue to make discoveries of which we 
have not the least idea." — 

EXERCISES. 
Where should the semi-colon he employed in the following 



The wise man is happy when he gains his own approba- 
tion the fool when he gains the applause of those about him. 

The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of false- 
hood is a perplexing maze. 

Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and it 
has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit. 

Levity is frequently the forced production of folly or vice 
cheerfulness is the natural offspring of wisdom or virtue only. 



211 english grammar. 

Colon. 
The colon is used to separate those parts of a 
discourse which are not so closely connected as 
those that require the period. 

The colon may be used in the following cases : 

1. When a proposition is complete in itself, but followed 
by some additional remark or illustration ; as, " Study to 
acquire a habit of thinking : no study is more important/' 

Remark. If the latter proposition were connected to the former by a con- 
junction, the colon could not be properly used ; as, " Study to acquire a habit 
of thinking; for no study is more important." 

2* When several semicolons have been employed, and a 
still greater pause is necessary before the full stop ; as, 
" We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but 
did not see it moving ; and it appears that the grass has 
grown, though nobody ever saw it. grow : so the advances 
we make in knowledge, as they consist of insensible steps, 
are perceivable only by the distance." 

3. When a quotation is introduced without a close de- 
pendence on a preceding word ; as, " He often uttered these 
words : ' I have done with the world, and I am willing to 
leave it.' " 

EXERCISES. 
Where may the colon be used in the following examples. 
A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never 
pass in a few years he-has all the endowments that he is ca- 
pable of. 

Since the first discovery of the arts war commerce and re- 
ligious zeal have diffused among the savages of the Old and 
the New World these inestimable gifts they have been suc- 
cessively propagated they can never be lost. 



PUNCTUATION. 210 

It is one thing for a father to cease to be a father by cast- 
ing off his son and another for him to cease to be so by the 
death of his son in the latter case the relation is at an end. 

All our conduct towards others should be influenced by 
this important principle Do unto others as you would that 
others do unto you. 

Note. The colon is now seldom used. In some of the preceding exam- 
ples, the semicolon may he used ; in others, the period. 

Period. 

The period is used at the close of a sentence ; 
as, "Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity 
towards all men." 

The period is also used after abbreviations ; as, 
A. D. P. S. G. W. Johnson. 

Remark. It must not he supposed that the sentence following the period 
never has any connection with that which precedes it. It is sometimes used 
even hefore a conjunction ; as, " Recreations, though they may he of an in- 
nocent kind, require steady government, to keep them within a due and limit- 
ed province. But such as are of an irregular and vicious nature, are not to 
he governed, hut to be banished from every well regulated mind." 

EXERCISES. 

When should the period be used in the following exercises ? 

Rejoice evermore pray without ceasing in every thing 
give thanks 

Worldly happiness ever tends to destroy itself by corrup- 
ting the heart it fosters the loose and the violent passions it 
engenders noxious habits and taints the mind with a false 
delicacy which makes it feel a thousand unreal evils 

If we look around us we shall perceive that the whole 
universe is full of active powers action is indeed the genius 
of nature by motion and exertion the system of being is pre- 
served in vigor by its different parts always acting in subor- 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dination to each other the perfection of the whole is carried 
on the heavenly bodies perpetually revolve day and night in- 
cessantly repeat their appointed course continual operations 
are going on in the earth and in the waters nothing stands 
still 

The boat will start at 4 o'clock P M 

This occurred A D 450 

An oration was delivered by J H Scott Esq and the com- 
pany seemed highly pleased. 

Note. After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other 
points, if the construction demands it; thus, after Esq. in the last example, 
there should be, besides a period, a comma. 

Dash. 

The dash is used when the sentence breaks off 
abruptly, where there is a sudden transition, or a 
significant pause ; as, " I had something of conse- 
quence to say — but this man — ." 

The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, 
Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — 
There's nothing true but heaven !" 

Remark. The dash is now often used instead of the parenthesis. 

EXERCISES. 

Where should the dash be used in the following exercises ? 

Here lies the great False marble -where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 

He is fallen how low ! 
We wait till to-morrow to be happy alas ! why not to-day ? 

Go, let me weep there's bliss in tears 

When he who sheds them inly feels 
Some lingering stain of early years 

Effaced by eveiy drop that steals. 



punctuation. 213 

Note of Interrogation. 

The note of interrogation is used at the close of 
a question ; as, " Why do you weep V 

Remark. This mark must not be used after indirect questions; as, " The 
Cyprians asked me why I wept." Here why I wept is not a direct question, 
and should not take the note of interrogation. 

EXERCISES. 

Where should the note of interrogation be used in the following 
exercises? 

When did you come Tell me when you came Have 
you read Milton He asked me if I had read Milton Know- 
est thou the land where the citrons bloom Who adorned the 
heavens with such exquisite beauty John asked me where 
I had been 

Note of Exclamation. 

The note of exclamation is used after sudden 
expressions of surprise, joy, grief, &c. as, " Now 
glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories 
are ! " Oh ! how our hearts were beating !" 

In earnest addresses, it is used, in preference to the com- 
ma, after the name of the object addressed ; as, " Hear me, 
O Lord ! for thy loving-kindness is great !" 

Note. The note of interrogation is sometimes improperly used after ex- 
clamations which have the form of questions ; as, "How great is the mercy 
of God ?" Here the note of exclamation should be used. 

EXERCISES. 

Where should the note of exclamation be used in the following 
exercises ? 

Days of my youth ye have glided away Oh let my weak- 
ness have an end Light for the hills of Greece How happy 
are the righteous O feeble boast of transitory power 



214 english grammar. 

Parenthesis. 

The parenthesis includes a clause not essential 
to the sentence ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below.' ' 

Remark I. The parenthetical clause should have the same point that is 
used hefore it; thus, there is a comma after know, because there is one after 
truth. 

But cases of interrogation and exclamation are excepted ; as, "While they 
wish to please, (and why should they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonorable 
means." 

Remark 2. The parenthesis is now seldom used ; instead of it, sometimes 
the comma, and sometimes the dash is employed ; as, 

" Know then this truth — enough for man to know — 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

EXERCISES. 

Where may the parenthesis be used in the following exercises? 

To others do the law is not sevei-e 
What to thyself thou wishest to be done. 

He was deceived we say it with respect in this matter. 
He fell what was there to prevent it from his high state. 



Other Marks. 

There are several other marks used for various purposes. 

The Apostophe [ ' ] is used as a sign of the possessive 
case ; as, John's. It is also used when a letter is omitted ; 
as, e'en for even, His for it is. 

The Caret [ a ] shows where to insert words or letters that 

my 

have been omitted ; as, " This is A book." 

The Hyphen [ - ] connects the parts of compound words ; 
as, cloud-compelling. When used at the end of a line, it 
shows that the rest of the word is in the following line. 

Note. It is not proper to place part of a syllable in one line, and the re- 
mainder in the next. 



- PUNCTUATION.. 215 

The Di&resis [••] placed over the latter of two vowels, 
shows that they do not form a diphthong ; as, aerial. The 
diaeresis here shows that this word is not to be pronounced 
erial. 

The Acute Accent [ ' ] denotes a short sound ; as, fancy. 

The Grave Accent [ * ] denotes a long sound ; as, favor. 

Note. The acute accent is often used to denote an accented syllable whe- 
ther long or short. 

Short and long sentences are generally denoted by the 
Breve [^] and the Dash [ - ] ; as, folly, rosy. 

The Section [ § ] marks the small divisions of a book 
or chapter. 

The Ellipsis [ ] or [ * # * ] is generally used where 

some letters are omitted from a name ; as, B n for Byron. 

The Paragraph [ TI], which is not much used except in 
the Bible, denotes the beginning of a new subject. 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] generally enclose some explana- 
tion , or something which is intended to prevent mistake ; as, 
"John told James that he [James] was to get a new book." 

The Marks of Quotation [ " " ] enclose the words of ano- 
ther. — 

The Index [IT?] is used to point out anything which de- 
mands particular attention. 

The Brace [ j ] is generally use to connect the three 
lines of poetry which form a triplet. 

It is also used to connect several words with one common 
term ; as, John Williams, ~\ 

James Anderson, > Managers. 
Robert Thomson, ) 

The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk [ t ], the Double Dagger [ J ], 
and the Parallels [ || ] refer to marginal notes. The letters of 
the alphabet, and the numerical figures are often used for 
the same purpose. 



216 english grammar. 

Capital Letters. 

The following words should begin with capital letters : 

1. The first -word of every distinct sentence. 

2. Proper names, and titles of office or honor ; as, George Washington, 
General Lee, Lord Brougham, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, the Ohio, 
Main Street. 

Remark. The name of an object personified may he used as a proper 
name, and should then begin with a capital ; as, " Come gentle Spring.' 1 

3. Adjectives derived from proper names; as, American, English, Roman. 

4. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, the Almighty, the Supreme 
Being, the Most High. 

5. The first word of every line of poetry. 

6. The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation would form 
a complete sentence by itself; as, " Christ says, ' My yoke is easy.' " 

7. Every noun and principal word in the titles of books ; as, " Pope's 
Essay on Man." 

8. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in capitals, 

Note. Other words, when they are of particular importance, may begin 
with capitals. 

EXERCISES. 

Where should capitals be used in the following exercises 1 
thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, honesty is the best policy, 
the soldiers of general Washington loved him as a father, socrates, plato, 
aristotle, and pythagoras are the names of distinguished grecian philosophers. 
the first female said, my name is pleasure, 
he has read a great many german and french works. 

spenser, shakspeare, and milton are the names of the greatest english poets, 
remember thy creator in the days of thy youth. 

up to the throne of god is borne 
the voice of praise at early morn, 
and he accepts the punctual hymn 
sung as the light of day grows dim. 

remember the ancient maxim, know thyself, solomon says, a wise man 
feareth and departeth from evil, he has read milton's paradise lost, and para- 
dise regained, he consulted Johnson's dictionary of the english language, 
and bosworth's anglo-saxon dictionary, if i can find the work i will send it 
to you. hear, o man ! o excellent scipio ! 

[Note. To exercise the pupil farther in punctuation, and the use of capi- 
tals, the teacher may write off extracts from some well printed book, and 
direct the pupil to punctuate them. Writers vary a good deal from each 
other in punctuation.] 




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